Depressive realism and outcome density bias in contingency judgments: the effect of the context and intertrial interval

The perception of the effectiveness of instrumental actions is influenced by depressed mood. Depressive realism (DR) is the claim that depressed people are particularly accurate in evaluating instrumentality. In two experiments, the authors tested the DR hypothesis using an action-outcome contingency judgment task. DR effects were a function of intertrial interval length and outcome density, suggesting that depressed mood is accompanied by reduced contextual processing rather than increased judgment accuracy. The DR effect was observed only when participants were exposed to extended periods in which no actions or outcomes occurred. This implies that DR may result from an impairment in contextual processing rather than accurate but negative expectations. Therefore, DR is consistent with a cognitive distortion view of depression.     

Timed excitatory conditioning under zero and negative contingencies

Rats (rattus norvegicus) anticipated the arrival of a food pellet unconditioned stimulus (US) even when the conditioned stimulus (CS) signaled no overall change or a substantial decrease in the overall rate of US occurrence. Pellet USs were scheduled probabilistically in the intertrial interval at either an equivalent rate (Experiment 1) or a four times higher rate (Experiments 2 and 3) than in the CS, which included one fixed-time target US. Conditioning has been said to involve learning "whether" (contingency) the CS signals a change in the US, and if so, "when" (contiguity) the US is scheduled to arrive. Our results suggest that "when" trumps "whether," challenging the received view that a positive CS-US contingency is necessary for successful conditioning.     

Responding under positive and negative response contingencies in pigeons and crows

Four crows were trained to key peck for food. Then, they were exposed to a positive response contingency that required them to peck the key when it was illuminated briefly (the trial) in order to receive food. This procedure resulted in consistent within-trial pecking. When the contingency changed so that food was presented at the end of a trial when no response occurred, but the trial terminated immediately and food was omitted when a response occurred (negative response contingency), responding decreased markedly. Eight pigeons were studied under the same change in contingencies. These birds varied in their response histories from naive to having several years' experience. The previously naive pigeons also showed rapid declines in responding under the negative contingency; the responding of the birds with extended training histories declined much more slowly. Eventually, however, six of the eight pigeons showed little or no responding under the negative contingency, while they responded consistently when re-exposed to the positive contingency. These findings question the power and the generality of the negative automaintenance phenomenon.     

Temporal factors influencing the pigeon's successive matching-to-sample performance: sample duration, intertrial interval, and retention interval

A successive matching-to-sample procedure that entails the sequential presentation of sample and test stimuli and the monitoring of response rates in a go/no-go discrimination of matching and nonmatching stimuli was studied as an alternative to the familiar delayed-matching paradigm of animal short-term memory. Three within-subject experiments studied the effects of sample duration (1 to 12 seconds), intertrial interval (5 to 50 seconds), and retention interval (1 to 50 seconds) on the pigeon's successive-matching performance. The results revealed that retention was (a) an increasing function of sample duration and intertrial interval, and (b) a decreasing function of retention interval. These results were in accord with those of more traditional short-term memory paradigms, and reveal the suitability of the successive-matching procedure for studying memory processes.     

Massed and spaced learning in honeybees: the role of CS, US, the intertrial interval, and the test interval

Conditioning the proboscis extension reflex of harnessed honeybees (Apis mellifera) is used to study the effect temporal spacing between successive conditioning trials has on memory. Retention is monitored at two long-term intervals corresponding to early (1 and 2 d after conditioning) and late long-term memory (3 and 4 d). The acquisition level is varied by using different conditioned stimuli (odors, mechanical stimulation, and temperature increase at the antenna), varying strengths of the unconditioned stimulus (sucrose), and various numbers of conditioning trials. How learning trials are spaced is the dominant factor both for acquisition and retention, and although longer intertrial intervals lead to better acquisition and higher retention, the level of acquisition per se does not determine the spacing effect on retention. Rather, spaced conditioning leads to higher memory consolidation both during acquisition and later, between the early and long-term memory phases. These consolidation processes can be selectively inhibited by blocking protein synthesis during acquisition.     

Pigeons' memory for number of events: Effects of intertrial interval and delay interval illumination

In Experiment 1, pigeons were trained at a 0-s baseline delay to discriminate sequences of light flashes (illumination of the feeder) that varied in number but not time (2f/4s and 8f/4s). During training, the intertrial interval was illuminated by the houselight for Group Light, but it was dark for Group Dark. Testing conducted with dark delay intervals produced a strong choose-small bias in both groups. All birds then received baseline training with a 5-s dark delay and were subsequently tested at shorter and longer dark delays. A choose-small bias was again observed at delays longer than the training delay, while a choose-large bias occurred at delays shorter than the training delay. Differentiating the ambient chamber illumination during the intertrial interval and the delay interval did not attenuate choose-small or choose-large effects. In Experiment 2, all birds received baseline training with a 5-s illuminated delay and were subsequently tested at shorter and longer illuminated delays. A choose-large bias was observed at delays longer than the training delay, while a choose-small bias occurred at delays shorter than the training delay. In Experiment 3, on intermittent test trials, when the duration of the second flash on small-sample trials was equal to the total flash duration on large-sample trials (i.e., 1600 ms), accuracy fell to approximately chance. These results suggest that pigeons discriminated the sequences of light flashes that varied in number but not in total duration of the sequence by relying on other temporal properties of the sequence rather than by using an event switch to count flashes.     

The influence of intertrial interval food on extinction and devaluation in chain schedules

The authors exposed pigeons to 2 equal 3-link chains by using variable-interval schedules of reinforcement. An intertrial interval (ITI) bisected by free food separated the chains. After baseline training, the authors presented terminal links in a successive discrimination to devalue 1 terminal link: The authors reinforced responses to 1 terminal link and extinguished responses to the other. The authors then presented full chains in extinction, except that they continued to deliver free food during the midpoint of the ITI. There were 2 principal findings. First, across all extinction conditions, responding decreased but did not extinguish. Second, when extinction testing revealed a terminal link devaluation effect in the 3rd condition, responding to the initial link was affected, but not middle-link responding. Overall, the results suggested that ITI food presentations can exert a substantial effect on responding in 3-link chain schedules, and they appear to influence both the pattern of extinction and devaluation effects.     

The effect of asymmetrical association on positive and negative semantic priming

One's actively ignoring a stimulus can impair subsequent responding to that stimulus. This negative priming effect has been argued to generalize to semantically related items as well, but the evidence for this is still somewhat weak. This article presents a new experiment in which participants made lexical decisions to asymmetrically associated prime-target pairs presented in either the forward (e.g., stork-baby) or backward (e.g., baby-stork) direction. The critical new finding was that both attended positive and ignored negative semantic priming occurred only for prime-target pairs presented in the forward direction. The results support either (1) a spreading inhibition model in which items associated with an ignored distractor are inhibited during prime selection or (2) a version of episodic retrieval theory in which the prime distractor and items associated with it are tagged as "to-be-ignored" during prime selection.     

Concept identification: Effect of the intertrial interval on the efficacy and consistency of information processing

Two experiments following identical procedure except for the feedback duration (respectively, 2 sec and 1.5 sec) and the intertrial interval (respectively, 1 sec and 3 sec) are compared with respect to three sequential statistics whose theoretical interpretation is related to the degree of optimality of information processing. The results indicate that the values of the theoretical parameters representing the efficiency of information processing, the consistency of trial-by-trial decisions, and the efficacy of reinforcement are greater in the 3-sec interval condition. This is interpreted as a tentative explanation of the well-known effect of intertrial interval on the difficulty of the task with respect to the mean number of trials to criterion.     

大小判断任务中正负号及其异同对SNARC效应的影响

SNARC效应(Spatial-Numerical Association of Response Codes)是指被试对数字做按键反应时,对于较小的数字,按左键的速度快于按右键;对于较大的数字,按右键的速度快于按左键。本研究以ERP作为测量手段,采用修正的大小判断任务,旨在探究数字正负号及其异同对SNARC效应的影响。行为结果发现,在反应时上,当目标数字与基线数字正负号相同且基线数字为+5时,一致条件显著快于不一致条件。ERP结果发现,当目标数字与基线数字正负号相同时,无论基线数字为+5还是–5,在反应选择阶段,不一致都比一致条件更负且均诱发了P3。当目标数字与基线数字正负号相异时,若基线数字为+5,一致比不一致条件在刺激呈现阶段诱发了波幅显著更小的N300;若基线数字为–5,一致比不一致条件在反应执行阶段诱发了更正的LPP。无论目标数字与基线数字正负号相同还是相异,在反应选择阶段,不一致都比一致条件更负且均诱发了P3,表明出现了SNARC效应。同时,SNARC效应的出现激活了额叶头皮位置,负数加工伴随左额叶的激活,而正数加工伴随右额叶的激活,溯源分析结果进一步表明SNARC效应定位于额叶与顶叶。这些结果说明负数按实际大小表征在心理数字线上,支持了负数空间表征的个体发展论假说;表明符号捷径机制会改变SNARC效应的发生时间;同时证明了负数与正数的空间表征具有不同的优势半球。     

The effects of variation of intertrial interval on exploration of elevatd and enclosed mazes

The interval between exploratory trials was varied in experiments using simple elevated or enclosed mazes. Activity on the second trial was depressed for short intertrial intervals but had recovered after about 10 min.; the degree of recovery was different in the two types of maze. A second decrease in second trial activity was found with inter-trial intervals of more than 20 min., but a further experiment suggested this was due to the effects of delay itself, rather than to previous experience of the environment.     

Effects of intertrial interval, orientation, and adaptation on orientation discrimination measured with a yes-no signal detection paradigm

This paper describes a performance measure of lateral dominance, the Target Tests, which provides separate assessments of manual speed and accuracy within a relatively simple paper-and-pencil format. The Target Tests were administered to 111 normal adults, and scores were examined with respect to handedness, familial left-handedness, and sex. The tests significantly differentiated between right- and left-handers. Target scores were substantially correlated with the Harris Tests of Lateral Dominance, suggesting adequate reliability and validity. The means, standard deviations, and ranges for the preferred and nonpreferred hands for both handedness groups were nearly identical. The Target Tests provide a convenient instrument for assessing motoric lateralization of speed and accuracy in clinical and research settings.     

Two different kinds of key peck in the pigeon: some properties of responses maintained by negative and positive response-reinforcer contingencies

Pigeons emitted almost exclusively short-duration key pecks (shorter than 20 msec) when on negative automaintenance procedures, in which pecks prevented reinforcement. Peck durations under fixed-interval and fixed-ratio reinforcement schedules were generally two to five times longer than pecks under a negative automaintenance schedule. However, initial key pecks were of short duration, independent of procedure. The frequency of short-duration pecks was insensitive to differential reinforcement, while the frequency of long-duration pecks was sensitive to differential reinforcement. It is proposed that short-duration pecks arise from the pigeon's normal feeding pattern and are directly enhanced by food presentation, while long-duration pecks are controlled by the contingent effects of food presentation. The implications of the existence of two classes of pecks for the functional definition of operants and the separation of phylogenetic and ontogenetic sources of control of key pecking are discussed.     

Mood and realism of confidence judgements of one''s own answers to general knowledge questions

This study examines the effect of a depressed mood on the realism of subjects' confidence judgements of the correctness of answers to general knowledge questions. Research conducted on how mood influences cognitive processes gives reason to expect that a depressed mood might increase the realism of individuals' confidence ratings. Sixty subjects were divided into three conditions, two of which were given mood induction, one condition into an elated-happy mood and one condition into a depressed-sad mood. As evidenced by subjects' responses to mood scales only the depressed condition was affected by the mood induction. All subjects answered 93 general knowledge questions and rated their confidence in the correctness of the answer given. Subjects were instructed to think aloud when answering the last 31 questions. The conditions did not differ with respect to the proportion of questions answered correctly, mean level of confidence, nor with respect to three measures of the realism in subjects' confidence ratings (calibration, over/underconfidence and resolution). The results were the same when questions answered with and without think aloud instructions were analysed separately.