婴儿数量表征的客体档案和类比模型

人对数量的表征及其发展是心理学研究的重要问题之一。20世纪70年代以来,国外对婴儿数量表征的研究取得了一系列理论和方法的进步。文章简要介绍了婴儿数量辨别和推理能力的研究方法,对婴儿数量表征相关的理论进行了重点讨论。大量详实的证据表明,婴儿拥有一个“天生的”数量机制,这为人数学能力的发展提供了基础。     

表面相似性与共享标签知识对智障儿童数量表征的影响

采用给数取物任务和数量比较任务,考察表面相似性与共享标签知识对96名7～16岁智障儿童数量表征的影响。研究结果表明：（1）智障儿童数量表征能力随着年龄增长而提高,11～13岁和14～16岁智障儿童完成数量比较任务的正确率显著高于7～10岁;（2）智障儿童在高表面相似物体下完成数量比较任务的正确率显著高于低表面相似物体下的正确率;（3）擅长使用数字标签的智障儿童,在数量比较任务的表现显著优于不擅长组。     

视知觉线索对幼儿小数离散量表征的影响

本研究采用数量辨别任务和数量比较的干扰任务考察了元素累积面积和元素特征丰富度两种视知觉线索对3～6岁幼儿表征4以内离散量的影响。两个任务的被试分别为80名和74名。结果表明,幼儿在辨别小数离散量时并未表现出对元素累积面积的偏好;且幼儿能同时关注累积面积和饼干个数两个维度,从而辨别抽象的数量关系;这种辨别能力有随年龄提高的趋势,不能辨别组以3、4岁幼儿居多,他们辨别方形饼干的数量关系比辨别圆形饼干更容易。当元素累积面积干扰小数量比较时,幼儿数量比较的正确率随数量比例增大而降低,此时幼儿小数量表征不再精确;而当单个元素的知觉特征更鲜明时,即使仍存在元素累积面积干扰,其正确率也不再受数量比例的影响。这说明单个元素的知觉线索与整体知觉线索共同影响小数离散量表征,也提示着幼儿的小数量表征精确性可能并非稳定存在,小数量表征在特定条件下也需要借助模拟数量系统。     

共享概念的性质对拥有关系句子情景模型建立的影响

应用扇效应技术探讨共享概念的性质对建构拥有关系情境模型的影响。共包括2个实验,探讨在将“多人买1物”句式中的所购“物品”改变为隐含共同地点信息的“物品”条件下,被试对“多人买1物”拥有行为句式的学习是否表现出扇效应。结果表明,当所购物品隐含的相同地点信息的情况下,“多人买1物”的拥有行为句式无论是否具有明确的地点状语,都如同“1人买多物”的句式一样,没有表现出扇效应,与Radvanskv的研究结果不同。据此认为,只有在共享概念是属于情景模型建构的维度信息的情况下,有共享概念的信息才能整合为同一个情景模型。     

代数应用题视觉化表征的理论模型及影响因素

视觉化表征是代数应用题表征的一大类型, 在问题解决过程中起着重要作用。视觉化表征的理论主要有视觉-逻辑二维模型、理解-转换模型、表象表征理论和图式-图像表征论, 四种理论模型各有其特殊的方法学意义。代数应用题的视觉化表征主要受到题目视觉化程度和认知负载等刺激因素以及自我效能感等认知因素的影响, 最后, 本文指出了在代数应用题视觉化表征理论、研究方法和影响因素探索中的进步以及发展空间。     

小学生应用题表征的类型和特点

以124名小学六年级学生为被试。采用应用题解决问卷考查了我国小学生应用题表征的类型和特点。结果表明小学生应用题的表征方式有复述内容、图式表征、图片表征、直译表征、语义结构分析等;成功解题者和不成功解题者对各种表征方式的使用次数上没有显着差异;成功解题者和不成功解题者在各种表征方式下的解题成绩有显着差异,成功解题者在图式表征、直译表征和语义结构分析表征下的成绩显着优于不成功解题者。     

Experience with Event Timing Does not Alter Emergent Timing: Further Evidence for Robustness of Event and Emergent Timing

Although, event and emergent timings are thought of as mutually exclusive, significant correlations between tapping and circle drawing (Baer, Thibodeau, Gralnick, Li, &; Penhune, 2013 Baer, L. H., Thibodeau, J. L. N., Gralnick, T. M., Li, K. Z. H., &; Penhune, V. B. (2013). The role of musical training in emergent and event-based timing. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7(191), 1–10. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00191.[Crossref], [PubMed] , [Google Scholar]; Studenka, Zelaznik, &; Balasubramaniam, 2012 Studenka, B. E., Zelaznik, H. N., &; Balasubramaniam, R. (2012). The distinction between tapping and circle drawing with and without tactile feedback: An examination of the sources of timing variance. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 65(6), 1086–1100. doi:10.1080/17470218.2011.640404.[Taylor &; Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Zelaznik &; Rosenbaum, 2010 Zelaznik, H. N., &; Rosenbaum, D. A. (2010). Timing processes are correlated when tasks share a salient event. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 36(6), 1565–1575. doi:10.1037/a0020380.[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) suggest that emergent timing may not be as robust as once thought. We aimed to test this hypothesis in both a younger (18–25) and older (55–100) population. Participants performed one block of circle drawing as a baseline, then six blocks of tapping, followed by circle drawing. We examined the use of event timing. Our hypothesis that acute experience with event timing would bias an individual to use event timing during an emergent task was not supported. We, instead, support the robustness of event and emergent timing as independent timing modes.     

抽象概念表征的具身认知观

抽象概念是否通过感知经验来表征以及如何被感知经验表征是具身认知面临的一大问题.在抽象概念表征是否具有感知经验基础的问题上,具身认知理论认为抽象概念通过情境模拟或隐喻与感知经验发生联系.在抽象概念如何与感知经验表征发生联系的问题上,概念模拟理论强调情景或运动模拟在抽象概念表征中的直接作用;概念隐喻理论则侧重具体经验或具体经验与抽象概念之间的共同结构关系在抽象概念表征中的间接作用.未来研究应改变概念表征的稳定的心理实体观,从语言和抽象表征的关系、正常儿童和特殊群体的抽象概念表征差异入手,整合不同的具身认知观点.     

The Development of Representations of Pretend Object Substitutions

Many theories of how pretense is mentally represented have been posited, but none have been effectually empirically tested to date. This research is the first to explore how children and adults mentally process simple pretend actions, specifically pretend object substitutions, and whether this representation changes with age. Preschoolers, older children, and undergraduates heard or read about a variety of pretend object substitutions, and their reaction time to name an image related to the object's real identity, pretend identity, or an unrelated image was measured. To test what is unique to pretense, these reaction times were compared to those from participants who responded to the same images after reading about nonpretend versions of the same actions. Results suggest that preschoolers inhibit reality when representing a pretend action, older children activate an object's real and pretend identities equally, and adults activate the object's real identity more than the pretend one. Implications for current theories of pretense representation are discussed.     

Heterogeneous Fibring of Deductive Systems Via Abstract Proof Systems

Fibring is a meta-logical constructor that applied to two logicsproduces a new logic whose formulas allow the mixing of symbols.Homogeneous fibring assumes that the original logics are presentedin the same way (e.g via Hilbert calculi). Heterogeneous fibring,allowing the original logics to have different presentations(e.g. one presented by a Hilbert calculus and the other by asequent calculus), has been an open problem. Herein, consequencesystems are shown to be a good solution for heterogeneous fibringwhen one of the logics is presented in a semantic way and theother by a calculus and also a solution for the heterogeneousfibring of calculi. The new notion of abstract proof systemis shown to provide a better solution to heterogeneous fibringof calculi namely because derivations in the fibring keep theconstructive nature of derivations in the original logics. Preservationof compactness and semi-decidability is investigated.     

范围假设解释大学生性别刻板印象表征的适用性*

通过任务助长实验范式考察范围假设对于某一熟悉群体刻板化特质判断的适用性。研究结果表明当大学生对于某一熟悉群体的刻板印象的抽象表征被激活时,违反刻板印象的样例表征也得到激活,用以限定抽象表征的适用范围。研究结果支持范围假设,即当一个抽象概念从语义记忆中被提取时,与抽象概念相冲突的情景记忆也被提取,以用来限定抽象概念的适用范围。     

Abstract reasoning and the interpretation of basic conditionals

Studies examining the interpretation that is given to if–then statementstypically use what are referred to as basic conditionals, which give contextless relations between two unrelated concrete terms (If the ball is blue, then the shape is square). However, there is some evidence that basic conditionals require a more abstract form of representation. In order to examine this, we presented participants with truth-table tasks involving either basic conditionals or conditionals referring to imaginary categories (If it is a bori, then it has red wings), and standard conditional inference tasks with abstract and familiar premises. As expected, fewer typical defective conditional interpretations were given to basic conditionals. In addition, partial correlations showed a unique relationship between the interpretation of basic conditionals and abstract inferential reasoning. Results suggest that people process basic conditionals as a form of abstract reasoning, and that the interpretation of conditionals must consider the semantic context.     

Monotheism and the Spirituality of Reason

In this paper I propose a cognitive interpretation of the emergence of monotheism. I first distinguish between two fundamentally different conceptions of representation: one intuitive, which favors an analog model of rational cognition, and one discursive, which favors a digital model. While both Hellenism and Judaism may have been instrumental in setting civilization on the path to reason and law, it is the discursive or digital conception of God as a single universal Judge, I argue, that provides the foundational axiom of the moral logic of the Hebrew Scriptures. That is, in monotheism, God came to be represented differently.     

数量表征的符号特异性和符号非特异性

数量表征(numerical representation)指与特定数量相联系的心理表征。长期以来抽象的数量表征假说占据主导地位, 但随着自动化加工范式和脑成像技术的发展, 数量表征存在符号特异性的证据已不断涌现。其中, 最近有两个理论认为数量表征可能同时存在符号特异性和符号非特异性。计算的模型假说提出非符号数量和符号数字在总和编码阶段具有符号特异性, 而在之后的位置编码阶段具有符号非特异性。双重编码的延伸假说则认为数量表征在自动编码阶段具有符号特异性, 然后在有意编码阶段, 受任务要求影响, 数量表征向实时的抽象表征过渡。已有大量行为和神经基础研究为以上假说提供了证据, 但数量表征动态变化的内在机制和脑区还有待探索, 未来应该在发展、跨文化、自动加工范式与神经成像相结合、单细胞记录技术等方向继续开展数量表征研究。     

Partial Knowledge of Word Meanings: Thematic and Taxonomic Representations

The type of information (taxonomic or thematic) available at different levels of knowledge was investigated. Following extensive norming to identify taxonomic and thematic associates of low-frequency nouns, participants determined if taxonomic or thematic associates were meaningfully related to target words at three levels of knowledge: target words they correctly defined (known), recognized as familiar (frontier), or mistakenly denied as part of the language (unknown). In another experiment, participants reported which type of relationship (taxonomic or thematic) was preferred. Results indicated that both types of information were available at all levels of knowledge. However, accuracy and preference were greater for taxonomic associates across word levels. A differential increase in available thematic information relative to taxonomic information was found. Implications for the acquisition and representation of word meanings are discussed.     

The mental representation of the magnitude of symbolic and nonsymbolic ratios in adults

This study mainly investigated the specificity of the processing of fraction magnitudes. Adults performed a magnitude-estimation task on fractions, the ratios of collections of dots, and the ratios of surface areas. Their performance on fractions was directly compared with that on nonsymbolic ratios. At odds with the hypothesis that the symbolic notation impedes the processing of the ratio magnitudes, the estimates were less variable and more accurate for fractions than for nonsymbolic ratios. This indicates that the symbolic notation activated a more precise mental representation than did the nonsymbolic ratios. This study also showed, for both fractions and the ratios of dot collections, that the larger the components the less precise the mental representation of the magnitude of the ratio. This effect suggests that the mental representation of the magnitude of the ratio was activated from the mental representation of the magnitude of the components and the processing of their numerical relation (indirect access). Finally, because most previous studies of fractions have used a numerical comparison task, we tested whether the mental representation of magnitude activated in the fraction-estimation task could also underlie performance in the fraction-comparison task. The subjective distance between the fractions to be compared was computed from the mean and the variability of the estimates. This distance was the best predictor of the time taken to compare the fractions, suggesting that the same approximate mental representation of the magnitude was activated in both tasks.     

记叙文中倒叙事件的时间表征

采用移动窗口阅读技术探讨记叙文中倒叙事件的时间表征模式。实验1检验了实验材料的适宜性, 实验2、3分别采用照应句范式和探测技术探讨时间顺序假设与背景信息假设的合理性。结果发现: 当事件E1和E3间的背景关系模糊时, 支持时间顺序假设; 事件E1和E3间的背景关系突出时, 支持背景信息假设。据此可以得出: 倒叙事件与前面事件间的背景关系突出时, 其表征为E2-E3-E1-E4模式, 背景关系模糊时, 则为E1-E2-E3-E4模式。     

动词理解中空间表征的激活过程

探讨动词理解中空间表征的激活过程。被试听以不同空间轴向动词作谓语的句子后辨认视觉刺激的形状。实验1以肯定句为材料探讨语义理解对视知觉任务的影响。实验2以客观原因否定句为材料排除句子表征的影响。实验3以主观原因否定句为材料探讨动词空间元素的激活机制。总的结果表明,动词理解过程中激活其表征中的空间元素,这种激活是自动的、非策略性的,不受情境中客观原因或主观意愿否定的影响。动词理解空间效应反映了语言表征中的知觉运动特征     

空间图式加工促进方向性时间表述的理解

时间表征是否具有空间方向性？本研究通过考察66名研究生时间表述实时加工中的空间引导效应来回答这个问题。实验一表明：空间垂直方向性图式促进被试加工含有空间词汇的时间表述;实验二表明：两种空间方向性图式,即水平方向性图式和垂直方向性图式,都促进被试加工含有纯时问词汇的时间表述。实验结果证实了时间表征具有空间方向性,并为“抽象思维以感知一动觉经验为基础”这一论点提供心理学证据。     

Liberalism,Abstract Individualism,and the Problem of Particular Obligations

In the following I take issue with the allegation that liberalism must inevitably be guilty of ‘abstract individualism’. I treat Michael Sandel’s well-known claim that there are ‘loyalties and convictions whose moral force consists partly in the fact that living by them is inseparable from understanding ourselves as the particular persons we are’ as representative of this widely held view. Specifically, I argue: (i) that Sandel’s account of the manner in which ‘constitutive’ loyalties function as reasons for action presupposes the possibility of there being (what I call) ‘underivable particular obligations’, but that such obligations are, in fact, a logical impossibility; and (ii) that Sandel’s account of the self as necessarily ‘encumbered’ presupposes an account of personal identity which confuses identification with definition, and which is, therefore, fundamentally flawed. For their constructive and insightful comments on an earlier draft of this paper, I owe a special debt of gratitude to the following: Clare Chambers, Roger Crisp, Cécile Fabre, Paul Kelly, David Lloyd-Thomas. Thanks also go to Res Publica’s two anonymous referees.