Keeping up impressions: Inferential rules for impression change across the Big Five

Not all first impressions have equal longevity. Which kinds of impression have the greatest mobility—downward and upward—over the course of acquaintanceships? In this article, we propose an inferential account of impression maintenance across Big Five trait domains. With data from field and laboratory studies, we provide evidence that positive impressions of agreeableness (A), conscientiousness (C), and emotional stability (ES) are especially vulnerable to small amounts of contrary evidence, whereas positive first impressions of extraversion (E) and openness (O) are more resistant to contrary information. Impressions of E and O demonstrated minimal susceptibility to negativity effects in a longitudinal study of college roommate impressions (Study 1), in a study of perceivers’ implicit theories about different trait domains (Study 2), and in an experimental study of manipulated impression change (Study 3).     

Transformation rules in concept learning

Two major classes of models have been proposed to explain concept learning: strength models and distance models (Hayes-Roth & Hayes-Roth, 1977). The present study demonstrates that subjects abstract transformation rules as defined by the Franks and Bransford 11971) distance model. Transformation rules characterize how the patterns of a concept differ from each other. Transformation rules are inconsistent with strength models, which assume that subjects abstract component features and not relational information characterizing the differences among patterns. Whether a strength model or a distance model is more appropriate in other instances of concept learning is probably a function of task demands, stimulus characteristics, and subject characteristics.     

The independence of recall and recognition in motor learning

A basic tenet of both current closed-loop theories of motor learning (Adams, 1971; Schmidt, 1975) is that the generation of response specifications during learning is required for the development of recall memory. Two experiments were performed to test this tenet by attempting to demonstrate the development of recall memory in the absence of response specification production. The task in both experiments required blindfolded subjects to learn to produce a rapid, novel criterion movement on a linear positioning device. Control subjects in both experiments actively produced movements during learning with knowledge of results (KR) while experimental subjects in Experiment 1 experienced only the endpoint locations and in Experiment 2 were passively moved to the endpoint locations. Following initial KR trials, both experimental and control groups attempted to actively produce the criterion movement in the absence of KR. The results of both experiments support closed-loop theory that active practice is required to develop recall memory. There was some suggestion, however, that passive experience with sensory feedback may also aid recall memory development, contrary to the two closed-loop theories.     

A Biased Inferential Naivety learning model for a network of agents

We propose a Biased Inferential Naivety social learning model. In this model, a group of agents tries to determine the true state of the world and make the best possible decisions. The agents have limited computational abilities. They receive noisy private signals about the true state and observe the history of their neighbors' decisions. The proposed model is rooted in the Bayesian method but avoids the complexity of fully Bayesian inference. In our model, the role of knowledge obtained from social observations is separated from the knowledge obtained from private observations. Therefore, the Bayesian inferences on social observations are approximated using inferential naivety assumption, while purely Bayesian inferences are made on private observations. The reduction of herd behavior is another innovation of the proposed model. This advantage is achieved by reducing the effect of social observations on agents' beliefs over time. Therefore, all the agents learn the truth, and the correct consensus is achieved effectively. In this model, using two cognitive biases, there is heterogeneity in agents' behaviors. Therefore, the growth of beliefs and the learning speed can be improved in different situations. Several Monte Carlo simulations confirm the features of the proposed model. The conditions under which the proposed model leads to asymptotic learning are proved.     

Repetition learning in the immediate serial recall of visual and auditory materials

In 5 experiments, a Hebb repetition effect, that is, improved immediate serial recall of an (unannounced) repeating list, was demonstrated in the immediate serial recall of visual materials, even when use of phonological short-term memory was blocked by concurrent articulation. The learning of a repeatedly presented letter list in one modality (auditory or visual) did not transfer to give improved performance on the same list in the other modality. This result was not replicated for word lists, however, for which asymmetric transfer was observed. Inferences are made about the structure of short-term memory and about the nature of the Hebb repetition effect.     

Advantages of recall over anticipation methods in verbal learning

The standard paired-associate anticipation procedure previously has been argued to be inferior to recall (Battig, 1965). Anticipation performance measures provide contaminated and inaccurate estimates of Ss’ current learning level, reflecting the unnecessary confusion produced by requiring S to do too many things at once. The present paper shows these arguments against anticipation procedures to apply equally to other types of verbal-learning tasks. Even stronger advantages of recall over anticipation procedures are demonstrated for serial learning, wherein recall additionally displays a markedly greater sensitivity to the effects of relevant manipulated variables, and does not result in the classical bowed serial-position curve that has proved so difficult to understand under serial anticipation.     

Pause measures during reading and recall in serial list learning

An investigation is reported into pausing and grouping during the serial learning of letter strings, when presented randomly by length and when presented in ascending order. Mean pause times for the reading and recall of longer lists were significantly greater than for lists of shorter span due to extended pausing at specific list positions. In general, reading rhythms were duplicated during recall. Subjects were highly consistent in maintaining their level of pause duration across lists and responded to additions in list length by increasing their number of groups, not by increasing group size. Triadic sequences were the most popular form of spontaneous organization. Pausing measures are discussed as indices of organizational strategies.     

A functional relation between learning and organization in free recall

It is well known that multitrial free recall is accompanied by increased organization of output over learning trials, even when the order of presentation is randomized. We compared the relation between learning and organization in 30 young and 30 older adults as they learned categorized materials to a criterion of 100% recall. The importance of this age manipulation was that it allowed us to examine, using two groups that differ significantly in their learning ability, whether organization and learning follow the same function. As was expected, older adults showed less organization on any given learning trial. However, when equated for degree of learning, the older adults showed approximately the same level of organization as the young. This finding suggests that the organization-learning relation remains invariant in the face of significant differences in participants’ mnemonic abilities.