An attempt to discriminate different types of executive functions in the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test

This study examined the roles of the phonological working memory and the central executive in the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test by altering the materials and the procedure of the task and using a dual-task design, in which cognitive abilities of normal participants were manipulated by performance of the secondary tasks selectively taxing the phonological loop or the central executive. The present study used three novel versions of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, namely the WCST-4 stimuli, the WCST-12-stimuli, and the WCST-12-stimuli-box, in all of which the participants were given the exact sorting criterion. So the tasks did not involve processes such as maintenance of inferences about the sorting criterion which would require phonological memory load. However, the tasks were assumed to require the executive process of response inhibition. In the WCST-4-stimuli condition no change was made to the WCST materials. In the other two conditions, relying on the assumption that the three-dimensional nature of the cards triggers inappropriate responses, unidimensional stimulus cards were used instead of the four normal three-dimensional WCST stimulus cards. The difference between these two conditions was that, in the WCST-12-stimuli-box condition, boxes were used to conceal the response cards previously sorted. The results supported Dunbar and Sussman's (1995) argument that some executive processes in the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test require the use of phonological store, and the present design was able to differentiate the type of executive functions that do not involve the use of a phonological loop from the ones that do. In addition, the results concerning manipulations of the visual aspects of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test suggest that the three-dimensional nature of the WCST stimulus cards leads to an increase in the number of inappropriate responses produced with the executive secondary task interference.     

Temporal stability of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in a chronic traumatic brain injury sample

The aim of the present study was to investigate the temporal stability of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) in a clinical population with documented brain pathology, stable cognitive deficits, and for whom repeated testing is common: chronic severe traumatic brain injury (TBI). Participants were 34 patients at least 1 year post severe TBI living at a large residential rehabilitation facility. The WCST was administered in standard fashion with both the standard and 64-card versions scored. All derived scores with norms were examined. Results indicated acceptable temporal stability of most scores for both the standard and short WCST, although the stability of the WCST-64 was poorer than for the standard WCST. Three sets of significant change indices are provided for clinical use.     

Sensitivity of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (64-Card Version) versus the Tower of London (Drexel Version) for detecting executive dysfunction in children with epilepsy

Executive function deficits are common in children and adolescents with epilepsy. Though the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST) is often considered the “gold standard” for executive function assessment, its sensitivity—particularly in the case of the 64-card version (WCST-64)—is insufficiently established in pediatric samples, including children and adolescents with epilepsy. The present investigation assesses the sensitivity of the WCST-64 in children and adolescents with epilepsy in comparison to another measure: the Tower of London – Drexel Version (TOL-DX). A total of 88 consecutively referred children and adolescents with epilepsy were administered both the WCST-64 and TOL-DX as part of a comprehensive neuropsychological evaluation. The sensitivity of WCST-64 and TOL-DX variables were established and relations with epilepsy severity measures and other executive function measures were assessed. Of the WCST-64 variables, Perseverative Responses is the most sensitive, but detected executive function impairment in only 19% of this clinically referred sample; in contrast, the TOL-DX Rule Violations detected executive function impairment in half of the sample. Further, TOL-DX performances are more strongly related to epilepsy severity variables and other executive function measures in comparison to the WCST-64. Despite its popularity amongst clinicians, the WCST-64 is not as sensitive to executive dysfunction in comparison to other measures of comparable administration time, such as the TOL-DX.     

The facilitative effect of positive stimuli on 3-year-olds’ flexible rule use

This study examined the effect of emotional stimuli on 3- to 4-year old children's flexible rule use, as measured by the Dimensional Change Card Sort (DCCS). In Experiment 1, children in two countries (Canada and China) were given 2 versions of the DCCS. The Standard version required children to sort red and blue boats and rabbits first by shape and then by color (or vice versa); the Emotional Faces version required children to sort happy and sad male and female faces first by emotion and then by gender (or vice versa). Children performed significantly better on the Emotional Faces version, and performance on the 2 versions was related. Order in which dimensions were presented had no effect. Experiment 2 examined which aspects of the emotional faces were responsible for the facilitation of children's performance. Performance on the Standard version was compared to performance on three contextual faces versions, in which children were shown happy, sad, or neutral faces and required to sort them by age (child versus adult) and then by gender (or vice versa). Facilitation was only seen in the context of happy faces. Results are consistent with the suggestion that positive stimuli promote cognitive flexibility, perhaps by increasing dopamine levels in prefrontal cortex.     

基于反馈加工的规则学习:研究儿童认知灵活性的新范式

认知灵活性作为执行功能的三个主要成分之一,对个体能力发展和环境适应起着重要作用。但以往研究多采用不同范式来考察不同年龄段儿童在一个优势规则失效后灵活转换至新规则的能力。本研究旨在威斯康星卡片分类任务(WCST)的基础上设计一种新任务范式,考察年龄范围更大的群体在规则习得过程中根据不同性质的反馈信息保持与灵活修订假设的能力。我们设计了目标选择任务(target choose task,TCT),考察181名5~11岁儿童的认知灵活性。其中24名儿童亦完成WCST。结果表明,TCT通过率界于32~65.7%;TCT高分组成绩显著高于低分组;分半信度计算结果表明奇数编号题目与偶数题目得分正相关;TCT分数与WCST完成分类数和概念化水平数分别呈正相关。这些结果表明TCT难度适中,具有区分度,内部一致性高,效度良好,可以在更大的年龄跨度上研究儿童在规则习得过程中的认知灵活性。     

Motor Learning as a Function of KR Schedule and Characteristics of Task-Intrinsic Feedback

Forty participants (age range = 18–35 years) practiced 1 of 2 versions of an aiming task (with or without spring resistance). Knowledge of results (KR) was provided to them either immediately or after a delay of 2 trials. Immediate KR led to significantly more accurate performance during the 80 trials in acquisition but significantly less accurate performance on a 40-trial retention test given 24 hr after practice. In addition, the spring version of the task was performed significantly less accurately than the no-spring version on the 24-hr retention test. Most important, a significant interaction on the 24-hr retention test revealed that performance of the no-spring version of the task, when KR had been given after a 2-trial delay, was significantly more accurate than performance of the other 3 combinations of task version and KR schedule. The results suggest that KR dependency in motor skill learning is related to familiarity with task-intrinsic feedback in addition to the schedule on which KR is presented.     

Motor learning as a function of KR schedule and characteristics of task-intrinsic feedback

Forty participants (age range = 18-35 years) practiced 1 of 2 versions of an aiming task (with or without spring resistance). Knowledge of results (KR) was provided to them either immediately or after a delay of 2 trials. Immediate KR led to significantly more accurate performance during the 80 trials in acquisition but significantly less accurate performance on a 40-trial retention test given 24 hr after practice. In addition, the spring version of the task was performed significantly less accurately than the no-spring version on the 24-hr retention test. Most important, a significant interaction on the 24-hr retention test revealed that performance of the no-spring version of the task, when KR had been given after a 2-trial delay, was significantly more accurate than performance of the other 3 combinations of task version and KR schedule. The results suggest that KR dependency in motor skill learning is related to familiarity with task-intrinsic feedback in addition to the schedule on which KR is presented.     

Age-related differences in performance on the Wisconsin card sorting test: a meta-analytic review

Two meta-analyses investigating age-related differences in performance on a popular measure of executive function, the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST), are reported. The 1st meta-analysis examined age-related changes in performance for the number of categories achieved, and the 2nd meta-analysis examined performance for the number of perseverative errors committed. Results indicated that robust age differences were present on both measures. Further analysis of moderator variables revealed reliable effects of education and test version on both measures, whereas test modality led to marginally significant differences in effect sizes obtained only for the number of categories achieved. Findings are discussed along with current accounts of age differences in performance of the WCST.     

Recall and Recognition Measures of Paired Associate Learning in Healthy Aging

ABSTRACT

Associate-recognition has received little attention as a potential clinical tool for detecting early Alzheimer's disease (AD). As an important preliminary stage to investigating the paradigm's diagnostic utility, we designed and administered a verbal associate-recognition task to healthy elderly participants (n?=?62) and compared their performance to that on traditional cued-recall PAL. In both test conditions, the stimulus list comprised of a mixture of highly imageable and less imageable word pairs. Overall, performance on the associate-recognition task was superior to that on the cued-recall analogue. This ‘recognition advantage’ was not attributable to the higher baseline or chance guessing rate in the associate-recognition condition, as the size of the recognition advantage varied across learning trials and stimulus imageability. In comparison to performance on the imageable stimuli, performance on the less imageable stimuli was poor in both associate-recognition and cued-recall conditions. Across the delay, performances were more likely to drop in the cued-recall condition than the associate-recognition condition. These results suggest that verbal associate-recognition may be clinically efficacious and better tolerated in elderly populations than traditional cued-recall paradigms. Although these results are encouraging, further research is required to examine the utility of associate-recognition in clinical populations, particularly early AD.     

The Role of Switching,Inhibition and Working Memory in Older Adults' Performance in the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test

ABSTRACT

The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) is considered a typical executive test. However, several interesting questions are still open as to the specific executive processes underlying this task. In the present study, we explored how local and global switching, inhibition and working memory, assessed through the Number–Letter, the Stop Signal and the Reading Span tasks, relate to older adults' performance in the WCST. Results showed that older adults' performance variability in the number of perseverative errors was predicted by the local switch component of the Number–Letter task. Results also showed age-related differences in inhibition, working memory and global switching, while local switching resulted largely spared in aging. This study provides evidence that switching abilities may contribute to performance of older adults in the WCST. It also provides initial evidence suggesting that switching processes, associated with local switch costs, are involved in performance on the WCST, at least in older adults.     

Influence of depression on verbal fluency performance

Abstract

Neuropsychologists are often faced with the challenge of assessing older adults who exhibit both cognitive deficits and symptoms of depression. This study examined factors associated with diminished fluency in elderly adults. Three groups were tested: 54 community elderly, 35 institutionalized elderly, and 40 young adults using the Controlled Oral Word Association test. Significant incremental contributions to performance on verbal fluency included age, education, depression, and the interaction term for depression and functional impairment. Diminished verbal fluency was associated with depression among older adults who were not functionally impaired. the results suggest that variables other than cerebral integrity must be taken into consideration when interpreting older adults' performance on fluency tests.     

Attention performance in an epidemiological sample of urban children: The role of gender and verbal intelligence

Abstract

We administered a comprehensive attentional battery to an epidemiologically defined sample of 435 first-and second-grade children to assess the influence of gender and verbal intelligence on attention. The battery included three versions of the continuous performance test (CPT), two digit cancellation tasks, three subtests from the WISC-R, and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. The results indicated that both gender and intelligence had an impact on attentional performance. Girls performed better than boys; they made fewer errors on the CPT and obtained higher scores on the digit cancellation task and the Coding subtest of the WISC-R. Children with higher verbal intelligence also performed better on the attentional tests, but this advantage was not observed across measures or levels of performance. For example, children with limited verbal skills performed significantly worse than their peers only in measures with high processing demands (the degraded CPT and the distraction version of the digit cancellation task).     

The influence of functional social support on executive functioning in middle-aged African Americans

ABSTRACT

Social support has a positive influence on cognitive functioning and buffers cognitive decline in older adults. This study examined the relations between social support and executive functioning in middle-aged adults. A community-based sample of African Americans completed the Interpersonal Support Evaluation List, a measure of functions of social support, and two measures of executive functioning, the Stroop Color and Word Test and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST). Hierarchical regression analyses were used to explore the hypothesis that different facets of perceived social support influence performance on measures of executive functioning. After controlling for age, gender, and education, social support facets including belonging support, selfesteem support, appraisal support, and tangible support were significant predictors of Stroop performance. In addition, tangible support significantly predicted WCST performance. These findings add to previous literature on social support and cognition; however, findings for middle-aged adults are unique and suggest that social support has a positive influence on some executive functions in African Americans prior to old age.     

Wisconsin card sorting test and Halstead Category Test performances of children and adolescents who exhibit the syndrome of nonverbal learning disabilities

Abstract

Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) and Halstead Category Test (HCT) performances of 15 children/adolescents (age range 9 to 17 years) diagnosed with the syndrome of nonverbal learning disabilities (NLD) and 15 age-, gender-, and FSIQ-matched verbal learning-disabled (VLD) controls were examined. The VLD group made significantly fewer errors on the HCT than did the NLD group. In addition, the VLD controls significantly outperformed the NLD participants on seven of the nine WCST index scores (all except failure to maintain set and learning to learn scores). Consistent with the adult literature, the common variance between the HCT and WCST was modest, indicating that these two neuropsychological measures gauge different domains of functioning. It is suggested that the HCT assesses conceptualization/higher order reasoning abilities, whereas the WCST taps dimensions of executive functioning.     

The Spider Phobia Card Sorting Test: An investigation of phobic fear and executive functioning

Recent studies indicate that anxious participants show cognitive biases favouring threat‐related stimuli. However, most of this evidence comes from Stroop tasks, which are believed to tap a narrow range of executive skills. The current study investigated phobic fear and cognitive biases using tasks designed to tap a wider range of executive processes: the standard Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST; Heaton, 1981), a modified version that included emotionally salient pictorial stimuli; the Spider Phobia Card Sorting Test (SPCST); and an emotionally valenced version of a verbal fluency task (VF). A total of 80 female participants (38 lower and 42 higher scorers on the Spider Phobia Questionnaire; SPQ) drawn from a larger sample of 126 completed either the standard WCST or the SPCST, the VF, and several mood measures. On the card sort, the higher SPQ SPCST group showed a significantly lower proportion of conceptual level responses, required a greater number of trials to complete the first category, and sorted significantly fewer stimulus cards to the spider target card than the lower SPQ SPCST group, or than either of the groups in the WCST condition who sorted to neutral target cards. On the VF, the higher SPQ group generated significantly more exemplars to the category “spiders” than the lower SPQ group. Therefore, fearful participants seemed to avoid or neglect the spider cue on the card sort, but performed better in generating “spiders” exemplars on the VF, as compared to the nonfearful group. Implications and limitations of these findings are discussed.     

Conscious knowledge of CS-UCS contingency information affects extinction retrieval of conditioned disgust responses: Findings from an online de novo disgust conditioning task

ObjectiveThe present study aimed to establish and develop an online de novo conditioning paradigm for the measurement of conditioned disgust responses. We further explored the effects of explicit instructions about the CS-UCS contingency on extinction learning and retrieval of conditioned disgust responses.MethodThe study included a sample of 115 healthy participants. Geometric figures served as conditioned stimuli (CS) and disgust-evoking pictures as unconditioned stimuli (UCS). During disgust conditioning, the CS+ was paired with the UCS (66% reinforcement) and the CS- remained unpaired; during extinction and retrieval, no UCS was presented. Half of the participants (n = 54) received instructions prior to the disgust extinction stating that the UCS will not be presented anymore. 1-2 days or 7-8 days later participants performed a retrieval test. CS-UCS contingency, disgust and valence ratings were used as dependent measures.ResultsSuccessful acquisition of conditioned disgust response was observed on the level of CS-UCS contingency, disgust and valence ratings. While some decline in valence and disgust ratings during the extinction stage was observed, contingency instructions did not significantly affect extinction performance. Retrieval one week later revealed that contingency instructions increased the discrimination of the CSs.ConclusionsExtinction of conditioned disgust responses is not affected by explicit knowledge of the CS-UCS contingencies. However, contingency instructions prior to extinction seem to have a detrimental effect on long-term extinction retrieval.     

The development of attention regulation in the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task

The present study examined performance on a computerized version of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) in participants between 6 and 18 years. Test trials were presented upon request, without time constraints, and with a direct coupling between the participant's response and the onset of the feedback. The pattern of findings that emerged from the self-controlled computerized WCST permitted unique insights into the developmental changes in reasoning and attention regulation during childhood and adolescence. The number of WCST categories achieved developed linearly between 6 and 11 years and asymptoted beyond this age, whereas attentional responses continued to develop. More specifically, a decrease in distractive attention to correct feedback predicted performance in the younger group. In contrast, an increase in attention to error feedback predicted the number of WCST categories achieved by the older children. This pattern of findings indicates that, although trial-by-trial feedback monitoring is crucial for the successful detection of WCST categories in both younger and older children, the specifics of attention regulation differ greatly between children and adolescents.     

Perception of Temporal Order: The Effects of Age,Sex, and Cognitive Factors

ABSTRACT

The present paper investigates the effects of age, sex, and cognitive factors on temporal-order perception. Nine temporal-order tasks were employed using two and four stimuli presented in the auditory and visual modalities. Significantly increased temporal-order thresholds (TOT) in the elderly were found for almost all tasks, while sex differences were only observed for two tasks. Multiple regression analyses show that the performance on most temporal-order tasks can be predicted by cognitive factors, such as speed of fluid reasoning, short-term memory, and attention. However, age was a significant predictor of TOT in three tasks using visual stimuli. We conclude (1) that age-related differences can often be attributed to cognitive factors involved in temporal-order perception, and (2) that the concept of temporal-order perception is more complex than implied by the current models.     

Deficits in set-shifting ability in nonclinical compulsive checkers

Recent studies suggest deficits in set-shifting ability in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) as measured by tasks such as the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST; Berg, 1948). The present study examined the extent to which these deficits were demonstrated by nonclinical subjects selected on the basis of their checking scores on the Maudsley Obsessional-Compulsive Inventory. A multivariate analysis revealed that frequent checkers performed significantly worse on the WCST than noncheckers, making more total errors and more perseverative errors and requiring more time to complete the test. A follow-up analysis on a subset of the original sample found similar performance deficits in checkers. While the poorer performance of checkers could be statistically accounted for by anxiety during the first administration of the WCST, anxiety could not explain the relationship between checking status and WCST performance at follow-up. Therefore, there does appear to be some relationship between checking status and WCST performance beyond what can be explained by affective variables.     

EFFECT OF DISTRACTOR WORD VARIABILITY IN CHILDREN'S PERFORMANCE ON A WORD IDENTIFICATION TEST∗

ABSTRACT

Second, third, and fourth grade children were administered one of three different versions of a word identification test. All versions tested the same target words but used a different combination of two different sets of distractor words. One set was deemed “highly confusing” (i.e., all dis‐tractors were graphically very similar to target words), the other “easily discriminable” (i.e., distractors were dissimilar to target words). One test version contained all highly confusing distractors, a second used all easily discriminable distractors, and a third contained a combination of both kinds. Results showed that at all grade levels children performed significantly better on the easily discritninable version than on the highly confusing version. Implications of this finding related to the content validity of extant word identification tests; that is, if test authors do not use a set of criteria for selecting distractor words and apply these criteria consistently, the content validity of a test may be in serious jeopardy, for one would not know whether the test measures target word difficulty of distractor word difficulty