社会身份复杂性的研究：理论、方法与进展

近十年来, “社会身份复杂性”这个概念逐渐引起社会心理学研究者的关注。社会身份复杂性是指个体对多重内群体身份之间的关系进行主观表征的方式, 反映了个体对自己的多重内群体身份之间感知到的重叠程度。当个体感知到的重叠程度较高时, 他们的社会身份复杂性就较低; 反之, 当个体感知到的重叠程度较低时, 他们的社会身份复杂性就较高。本文首先简要介绍了多重内群体身份表征模型, 然后从社会身份复杂性的理论内容、测量方法、作用以及影响因素等方面对以往的相关研究进行了回顾。最后, 指出未来的研究应侧重对社会身份复杂性理论和研究设计的进一步完善、问卷量表的效度验证, 并加强研究结果的具体应用。     

Attachment to groups: Relationships with group esteem,self-esteem,and investment in ingroups

We apply a model of interpersonal attachment style to the group domain, examining how attachment to ingroups relates to self-views, group esteem, and ingroup investment. In Study 1 (N = 306), participants completed measures of self-esteem, group esteem, group attachment insecurity, and investment. Study 2 (N = 316) implemented a within-subjects experimental design in which participants completed the same measures as in Study 1 with regard to ingroups they held in high versus low esteem. In both studies, the negative relationship between group esteem and group attachment avoidance was stronger among participants with higher self-esteem, and the negative relationship between self-esteem and group attachment anxiety was stronger for more esteemed ingroups. Over and above group esteem, group attachment anxiety was positively and avoidance negatively related to investment in ingroups. We integrated frameworks spanning group dynamics and close relationships to contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of how individuals perceive their relationships with ingroups.     

Religiosity, values, and horizontal and vertical individualism-collectivism: a study of Turkey, the United States, and the Philippines

The authors examined the links between two dimensions that have been useful in understanding cross-cultural differences and similarities, namely, individualism-collectivism (I-C) and value orientations. The authors examined the relations and parallels between the two variables by directly relating them and examining the patterns of relations that both have with a third variable, religiosity. Participants were 475 college students from the Philippines, the United States, and Turkey who responded to measures of horizontal and vertical I-C, value orientations, and religiosity. The authors found partial support for the parallels between I-C and value types, particularly for collectivism and conservative values. Moreover, religiosity was associated positively with conservative values and collectivism, across all three cultures. The authors found individualism to also relate to openness-to-change values, though the patterns were not as consistent as those that they found between collectivism and conservation. Differences and similarities emerged in links of I-C-values to religiosity across the three samples.     

Group entitativity and similarity: Their differing patterns in perceptions of groups

Three studies were conducted to investigate the relation between perceptions of group entitativity and group similarity. The first two studies tested whether entitativity and similarity would be perceived differently in participants' ingroups and outgroups. Across several different group types, we found that, in comparison to outgroups, ingroups were perceived to be relatively more entitative than outgroups, whereas outgroup members were perceived to be highly similar in comparison to ingroup members. The results of Study 3 showed that manipulation of group entitativity influenced perceptions of group entitativity but not of group similarity, whereas manipulation of similarity influenced perceptions of group similarity but not of group entitativity. The results of these studies provide support for the contention that entitativity and similarity are distinct (though related) concepts that function differently in group perception. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Entitativity,identity, and the fulfilment of psychological needs

Social groups provide many benefits to the individual and some groups are better able to meet the needs of their group members. The current research examines the impact of perceived entitativity on the degree to which groups are able to fulfil the psychological needs of individual members. Participants listed ingroups based on the group typology of Lickel et al. (2000) and rated characteristics of the group, level of identification, and the degree to which the group met a series of needs. The results indicate that increased entitativity predicts greater perceived relative need fulfilment and that this effect is mediated by level of identification with the group. These results extend our understanding of the functions that different group types serve and the consequences of ingroup entitativity perceptions for the individual.     

Social perception as induction and inference: an integrative model of intergroup differentiation, ingroup favoritism, and differential accuracy

Three general properties of social stereotypes are the perception of differences between ingroups and outgroups (intergroup differentiation), the perception of ingroups as having more desirable attributes than outgroups (ingroup favoritism), and the greater accuracy of ingroup perceptions (differential accuracy). We present and test an inductive-reasoning model that accounts for all 3 phenomena, and we explicate the relations among them. Based on empirical evidence, the model assumes that most people have a positive self-image, that they project these self-images more strongly to ingroups than to outgroups, and that their self-images are valid cues for judgments about social groups. Two minimal-group experiments using a crossed-categorization paradigm support the model and provide new evidence for underlying psychological processes.     

Overlapping mental representations of self, ingroup, and outgroup: unraveling self-stereotyping and self-anchoring

Smith and collaborators presented strong response time evidence for overlapping mental representations of the self and relevant ingroups, and they interpreted their findings as reflecting that people define themselves in terms of their ingroups. Besides on inferences from ingroup to self (self-stereotyping) however, self-ingroup overlap could also be based on inferences from the self to the ingroup (self-anchoring). The present research tackled this interpretational ambiguity and empirically distinguished self-anchoring versus self-stereotyping as processes possibly under-lying self-ingroup overlap. Results from three studies revealed stronger evidence for inferences from self to ingroup (selfanchoring) than the other way round (self-stereotyping).     

The Myth of Individualism-Collectivism: A Critical Review

Abstract

The authors critically assess the dimension of individualism-collectivism (I-C) and its various uses in cross-cultural psychology. They argue that I-C research is characterized largely by insufficient conceptual clarity and a lack of systematic data. As a result, they call into question the utility of I-C as an explanatory tool for cultural variation in behavior, suggest alternative dimensions for cross-cultural research, and interpret the weaknesses of research on I-C as illustrative of a general trend in social psychology.     

Where (who) are collectives in collectivism? Toward conceptual clarification of individualism and collectivism

In psychological research on cultural differences, the distinction between individualism and collectivism has received the lion's share of attention as a fundamental dimension of cultural variation. In recent years, however, these constructs have been criticized as being ill-defined and "a catchall" to represent all forms of cultural differences. The authors argue that there is a conceptual confusion about the meaning of ingroups that constitute the target of collectivism. Collectives are rarely referred to in existing measures to assess collectivism. Instead, networks of interpersonal relationships dominate the operational definition of "ingroups" in these measures. Results from a content analysis of existing scales support this observation. To clarify and expand the individualism-collectivism distinction, a theoretical framework is proposed that draws on M. B. Brewer and G. Gardner's (1996) conceptualization of individual, relational, and collective selves and their manifestation in self-representations, beliefs, and values. Analyses of data from past studies provide preliminary support for this conceptual model. The authors propose that this new theoretical framework will contribute conceptual clarity to interpretation of past research on individualism and collectivism and guide future research on these important constructs.     

Individualism-collectivism and self-concept: Social or contextual?

The cultural constructs of individualism and collectivism (I-C) have been closely identified with different conceptions of the self. In contrast to autonomous, abstract self-concepts, it has been argued that collectivists have concepts of self which are interdependent with others and connected with particular contexts. This study investigated the extent to which spontaneous social and contextual self-concepts were connected to each other and to individual-level I-C measures. Questionnaires were administered to adult employee samples in Australia and South-East Asia (N = 581). Although closely intertwined, social and contextual statements were able to be independently tested in relation to I-C. I-C was primarily related to the social-autonomous dimension of self. Controlling for social self-responses, contextual self-concepts were not independently related to any of the measures of I-C.     

WAR, PEACE, AND RELIGION'S BIOCULTURAL EVOLUTION

Abstract. A recent scientifically and historically grounded theory on human genetic and cultural evolution suggests why the religious elements of culture became the primary source of both peaceful cooperation within societal ingroups and at the same time of destructive wars with outgroups. It also describes the role of religion in the evolution of ape-men into humans. The theory indicates why human societal life is not long viable without the underpinning of a healthy, noncoercive, religious faith; why sound religious faith is weak now; and why we may hope both for better morals and for worldwide cooperation in peace.     

Body of guilt: Using embodied cognition to mitigate backlash to reminders of personal & ingroup wrongdoing

Research demonstrates that people are sensitive to information that portrays either themselves or their ingroups in a negative light. Indeed, confronting individuals with their own past misdeeds or those committed by important ingroups can result in victim-blaming and refusals to apologize or make amends. Studies suggest that one reason why people demonstrate these backlash effects is that they immediately blunt the experience of guilt when confronted with either their own or group misdeeds from the past. The more individuals actually experience guilt, however, the more likely they are to respond to information about past wrongdoing with prosocial behavior (e.g., apologies, reparations, etc.). The present research sought to examine how subtle inductions of guilt shape responses to personal and group wrongdoing; namely, by manipulating individuals' body postures. Consistent with predictions, results suggest that embodiment-induced guilt reduces negative backlash and increases prosocial interpersonal and intergroup intentions.     

The myth of individualism-collectivism: a critical review

The authors critically assess the dimension of individualism-collectivism (I-C) and its various uses in cross-cultural psychology. They argue that I-C research is characterized largely by insufficient conceptual clarity and a lack of systematic data. As a result, they call into question the utility of I-C as an explanatory tool for cultural variation in behavior, suggest alternative dimensions for cross-cultural research, and interpret the weaknesses of research on I-C as illustrative of a general trend in social psychology.     

On boredom and social identity: a pragmatic meaning-regulation approach

People who feel bored experience that their current situation is meaningless and are motivated to reestablish a sense of meaningfulness. Building on the literature that conceptualizes social identification as source of meaningfulness, the authors tested the hypothesis that boredom increases the valuation of ingroups and devaluation of outgroups. Indeed, state boredom increased the liking of an ingroup name (Study 1), it increased hypothetical jail sentences given to an outgroup offender (Study 2 and Study 3), especially in comparison to an ingroup offender (Study 3), it increased positive evaluations of participants' ingroups, especially when ingroups were not the most favored ones to begin with (Study 4), and it increased the appreciation of an ingroup symbol, mediated by people's need to engage in meaningful behavior (Study 5). Several measures ruled out that these results could be explained by other affective states. These novel findings are discussed with respect to boredom, social identity, and existential psychology research.     

Psychological Reactions of Biologists: A Cross-Section of Present-Day Biological Thought

Abstract

Differential outcomes and processes were examined between groups drawn from Hong Kong Chinese students and U.S. students. Predictions about group performance and processes were based on cross-cultural empirical literature, theoretical work on collectivist and individualist social behaviors, and group research. The participants engaged in decision-making tasks, first as individuals and then by consensus in groups of 5. A group-effectiveness measure was developed: A group was considered effective if the group as a whole outperformed a majority of its individual members. According to the results of a postexercise questionnaire, (a) Chinese ingroups had a higher percentage of effective groups than did Chinese minimal (acquaintance) groups, whereas U.S. minimal groups had a higher percentage of effective groups than did U.S. ingroups; (b) although the Chinese ingroups' deliberation times were nearly 3 times longer than those of the U.S. ingroups, their performance accuracy was not superior to that of the U.S. groups; and (c) the Chinese participants were more concerned than the U.S. participants about an appropriate image and perceived their group discussions as more intense and conflict ridden than the U.S. participants did.     

参照群体类型与自我—品牌联系

自我－品牌联系(Self-brand Connection)指消费者使用某品牌构建、强化和表达自我的程度。研究参照群体的类型对消费者的自我－品牌联系的影响。研究结果表明：三种非成员群体对自我－品牌联系的影响是不同的,消费者会使用品牌形象与渴望群体一致的品牌来表明自己是什么类型的人,也会使用品牌形象与规避群体相悖的品牌来表明自己不是什么类型的人;消费者对成员群体的情感承诺程度会调节成员群体对自我－品牌联系的影响,情感承诺度高、中的成员群体比情感承诺度低的成员群体对自我－品牌联系的影响更大     

Crossed-categorization, evaluation, and face recognition

We investigated the relationship between evaluative intergroup bias and biased errors in intergroup face recognition after crossed-categorization (the combination of two social categories in defining a target of perception). Although evaluative bias and recognition bias often operate in parallel, we draw on two previously unconnected literatures to predict a divergence between these two processes after crossed-categorization. We tested this hypothesis by assessing participants’ evaluations of and recognition of targets who shared two ingroups with participants, targets who shared only one ingroup with participants, and targets who shared neither ingroup. Consistent with predictions, targets’ shared and unshared group memberships combined additively to affect evaluation, but targets who shared two ingroup memberships were better recognized than all other category combinations. These results document the relationship between evaluative bias and recognition bias after crossed-categorization and indicate that crossed-categorization affects evaluative bias and recognition bias in different ways.     

Social Categorization and the Perception of Groups and Group Differences

The classification of human beings into distinct groups is a fundamental feature of social perception. Problematic phenomena, such as prejudice, discrimination, and intergroup conflict, are commonly traced back to categorization. We explore the minimal conditions under which categorization occurs and the basic mechanisms by which it affects cognition and behavior. We show that comparisons between groups are not necessary for categorization, reveal the conditions under which people overestimate or underestimate differences between groups, and sketch a model showing how social categorization gives rise to differences in the evaluation of ingroups and outgroups and to differences in the accuracy of judgments of ingroups and outgroups. We conclude with reflections on intergroup conflict and the role of moral judgment in such conflicts.     

THE PROBLEM OF MAGNITUDE AND CATEGORY SCALES: INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS

J unge , K. The problem of magnitude and category scales: interpretation of results. Scand. J. Psychol ., 1962, 3 , 215–218.—It is proposed that three main factors are responsible for the relation between magnitude and category scales: (1) ratio judgments on a transformed category scale, (2) interval judgments, and (3) hybrid judgments. The last term refers to the tentative explanation that magnitude judgments are a cross between pure ratio and interval judgments.     

The Ingroup Favorability Bias in the Minimal Groups Situation

Abstract

In the present study limits to the ingroup favorability bias in the minimal intergroup situation were examined. A sample of students from the United States received either positive or negative information about either one or both of their ingroups. The amount of information provided about the ingroup was also varied. Consistent with the experimental hypothesis, students were least favorable in their evaluations of the ingroup when negative information was provided and was applicable to both of their ingroups, compared to when the same negative information applied to only one of those ingroups. The findings support Turner's (1975) position that the ingroup favorability bias is motivated by a need to maintain or enhance a positive social identity.