Advertising exposure,memory, and choice

Abstract

Mitchell, A.A. (Ed.) (1993). Advertising exposure, memory, and choice. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc. 352 pp. ISBN 0-8058-0685-7.£46.95/$87.50 (hbk).     

Information,run structure and binary pattern complexity

Two information processing models of the perception of binary patterns are outlined. The H (k-span) model assumes S er;aluates the transitional uncertainty associated with the different k-tuples constituting the pattern. The H (run-span) model assumes S codes the pattern into runs and then evaluates the transitional uncertainty associated with the pattern’s run-tuples. Both models give a measure of the complexity of a pattern. The models are tested by using the complexity measures to predict various response indices of pattern complexity; e.g. judged pattern complexity, mean number of words to describe a pattern, accuracy of recall of a pattern. H (run-span) proved to be highly correlated with all of the pattern complexity indices. H (k-span) received only moderate support.     

Stimulus complexity and choice inconsistency among gambles

Tversky (Psychological Review, 1969, 76, 31–48) found that some subjects can be induced to make intransitive choices among gambles. The gambles were so designed that for some pairs the subjects were inclined to choose on the basis of monetary values, while for others they were inclined to choose on the basis of the probabilities. This study replicates and expands Tversky's. The two principal findings are: (1) Tversky's results can be replicated using unselected subjects. (2) If subjects are forced to be transitive, by requiring them to evaluate the bets individually on a monetary scale, most resolve the intransitivity in favor of maximizing expected value.     

Effects of complexity and prechoice stimulation on exploratory choice

Four experiments are reported in which Ss had to choose between a response exposing a more complex visual pattern and a response exposing a less complex visual pattern, the two alternative patterns being the same over a succession of trials. When the choice followed near darkness, the response exposing the more complex pattern was performed significantly more often, and this tendency became steadily more marked over trials. It was still in evidence when the duration of postchoice exposures was increased from 1.5 sec to 5 sec and when near darkness was replaced by prechoice exposure to the patterns that were repeatedly seen after the choice. The proportion of more complex choices declined when more arousing stimulation (a recurrent colored picture) preceded the choice and declined still further when prechoice stimulation was made still more arousing (a different colored picture on every trial). This effect was obtained again with 35-msec postchoice exposures. The findings tend to refute an earlier hypothesis implicating perceptual curiosity as a prime factor. Instead, the attractiveness of more complex stimulation seems to vary inversely with the level of prechoice stimulation.     

Serial pattern complexity: irregularity and hierarchy.

In perception research, various models have been designed for the encoding of, for example, visual patterns, in order to predict the human interpretation of such patterns. Each of these encoding models provides a few coding rules to obtain codes for a pattern, each code expressing regularity and hierarchy in that pattern. Some of these models employ the minimum principle which states that the human interpretation of a pattern is reflected by the simplest code for that pattern, ie the simplest code according to a given complexity metric. In this paper a new complexity metric is proposed. This metric is based on a formal analysis of the concept of regularity. Some conclusions of this analysis are sketched. The new metric does not depend on artifacts of the coding rules. It accounts for the amounts of irregularity and hierarchy as represented in a code of a pattern, such that these two amounts can be added to determine the complexity of a code. An experiment is discussed that shows that the new metric performs significantly better than the metrics used previously. In particular, the new metric predicts more local pattern organizations than the old metrics. This implies that various local pattern organizations do not falsify the minimum principle anymore.     

Quantitative and structural factors in the judgment of pattern complexity

The processes underlying judgment of pattern complexity were investigated using patterns containing eight dots in a 4 × 4 matrix. Thirty-two subjects rated the complexity of 140 patterns that were taken from patterns generated by 12 other subjects in a preliminary experiment. Factor analysis of mean complexity ratings and 12 physical variables, which objectively described configuration of dots, revealed a “quantitative factor” and a “structural factor.” Mean complexity loaded on both factors. Multiple regression analysis showed that the mean complexity was well predicted by combination of a quantitative variable with a structural variable. Analysis of individual data also suggested that individual differences in complexity judgment could be explained by the weights on these two factors. In addition, a rating experiment was carried out in which 60 patterns were presented in limited stimulus durations (50 msec, 200 msec, 1 sec, or 4 sec). The quantitative variables were highly correlated with the complexity ratings in all conditions, whereas the structural variables affected the ratings in long durations but not in short durations. These results support the view that visual complexity is judged through two processes: One is a fast process that evaluates quantitative aspects in a stimulus pattern, and the other is a slow process that detects the structure in the pattern.     

Visual pattern matching: Effects of size ratio, complexity, and similarity in simultaneous and successive matching

An experiment on mental transformation of size, in pairwise comparison of simultaneously or successively presented figures with respect to shape, is reported. Regardless of type of presentation (simultaneous vs. successive), figural complexity, and similarity within pairs of different-shaped figures, median latencies of both same and different responses were approximately linearly increasing functions of the linear size ratio between the patterns to be compared. The slopes of the functions showed significant effects of figural complexity and similarity for simultaneous but not for successive matching. The results suggest that successive matching was done by encoding a subpattern of the first stimulus in a pair as a mental image, transforming the image to the size format of the other stimulus, and then testing for a match; in simultaneous matching the process of encoding, transformation, and comparison appeared to be executed several times for each pair of figures. The interpretation was illustrated by a random walk model, which provided a good fit to the results. Received: 31 March 1998 / Accepted: 22 August 1998     

Structural complexity as a determinant of serial pattern learning

A new methodology extends the study of serial pattern learning to nonhuman organisms by constructing patterns using elements that are both familiar and motivationally meaningful to animals. Two experiments examine the ability of rats to anticipate various quantities of food as measured by running times in a runway when the quantities occur in a serial order. In Experiment 1, a serial monotonic pattern (14-7-3-1-0 food pellets) produced more rapid learning and more accurate anticipation of the various quantities (“tracking”) than a serial nonmonotonic pattern (14-1-3-7-0 food pellets), particularly with respect to the final 0-pellet element. In Experiment 2, the same monotonic pattern generated faster learning and more accurate anticipation of pattern elements than a weakly monotonic pattern (14-5-5-1-0 pellets). Associative explanations including simple excitatory or inhibitory effects, temporal anticipation, reinforcement contrast, and the number and discriminability of pairwise associations are not adequate to account for the data. Rather, the formally defined structural complexity of each pattern adequately predicts its relative difficulty.     

Impulsive choice and pre‐exposure to delays: iv. effects of delay‐ and immediacy‐exposure training relative to maturational changes in impulsivity

Impulsive choice describes preference for smaller, sooner rewards over larger, later rewards. Excessive delay discounting (i.e., rapid devaluation of delayed rewards) underlies some impulsive choices, and is observed in many maladaptive behaviors (e.g., substance abuse, gambling). Interventions designed to reduce delay discounting may provide therapeutic gains. One such intervention provides rats with extended training with delayed reinforcers. When compared to a group given extended training with immediate reinforcers, delay‐exposed rats make significantly fewer impulsive choices. To what extent is this difference due to delay‐exposure training shifting preference toward self‐control or immediacy‐exposure training (the putative control group) shifting preference toward impulsivity? The current study compared the effects of delay‐ and immediacy‐exposure training to a no‐training control group and evaluated within‐subject changes in impulsive choice across 51 male Wistar rats. Delay‐exposed rats made significantly fewer impulsive choices than immediacy‐exposed and control rats. Between‐group differences in impulsive choice were not observed in the latter two groups. While delay‐exposed rats showed large, significant pre‐ to posttraining reductions in impulsive choice, immediacy‐exposed and control rats showed small reductions in impulsive choice. These results suggest that extended training with delayed reinforcers reduces impulsive choice, and that extended training with immediate reinforcers does not increase impulsive choice.     

Maximizing,choice freedom,and duration judgments in choice making

This paper examines (a) whether people are less accurate in judging choice time as choice tasks involve more choice options, more choice information, or a combination of both and (b) whether people with a higher tendency to look for the best option in choice making (maximizers) have less accurate duration judgments of choice time as compared to people who are more easily settling for a choice outcome that is satisfactory (satisficers). A multilevel analysis is used to explore the relationships of interest using data collected through a series of choice tasks. In general, the results suggest that people seem to misjudge time durations when making choices. Moreover, empirical evidence demonstrates that people with an outspoken tendency to maximize in choice making do not differ significantly in estimating choice time accurately as compared to people who experience almost no need to maximize.     

Understanding the weapon focus effect: The role of threat,unusualness, exposure duration,and scene complexity

We examined the role of exposure duration and scene complexity on the weapon focus effect (WFE). Memory for the mock crime was affected more by a weapon than an unusual but nonthreatening object. Threat reduced correct identifications when the event was short but not long; duration of the event did not interact with unusualness. Additionally, we found a WFE for target‐absent lineup decisions, but only for the accomplice lineup, not the object‐wielding perpetrator's lineup. We discuss the implications of these results for illuminating the mechanisms that elicit the WFE.     

Consistent curricular choice and congruence of subsequent changes

Curriculum choices of 324 male and 157 female liberal arts students who took the Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory (SCII) during freshman orientation were classified as congruent or incongruent on the basis of rated correspondence between three-letter codes derived from (SCII) Holland theme scales and expressed curricular choice. The choices of those subjects reporting one or more changes in five semesters were examined for level of congruence using a two-way analysis of variance with repeated measures. While serious methodological limitations are noted, analysis of variance procedures indicated that congruent subjects tended to be more stable, more differentiated, and more academically oriented than incongruent subjects. Among subjects who reported one or more changes, Artistic subjects decreased in congruence while Investigative subjects showed no overall change. Results are discussed in terms of recent theory and previous research.