Recency effect in recall of a word list when an immediate memory task is performed after each word presentation

Subjects studied 12-word lists for free recall. During presentation of the lists, each word was followed by a supraspan sequence of digits, which the subjects tried to reproduce. This task, unlike those used in previous research with this continual distractor procedure, presumably taxed immediate memory capacity to the full. Nevertheless, the word recall data showed a pronounced recency effect. Moreover, the magnitude of the recency effect was found to be just as great with this task as with a more typical task in which the demands on immediate memory are likely to be fewer. These findings reinforce the emerging view that the recency effect need not be the product of immediate memory.     

Extrafoveal processing of objects in a naming task: Evidence from word probe experiments

In two experiments, we investigated the processing of extrafoveal objects in a double-object naming task. On most trials, participants named two objects; but on some trials, the objects were replaced shortly after trial onset by a written word probe, which participants had to name instead of the objects. In Experiment 1, the word was presented in the same location as the left object either 150 or 350 msec after trial onset and was either phonologically related or unrelated to that object name. Phonological facilitation was observed at the later but not at the earlier SOA. In Experiment 2, the word was either phonologically related or unrelated to the right object and was presented 150 msec after the speaker had begun to inspect that object. In contrast with Experiment 1, phonological facilitation was found at this early SOA, demonstrating that the speakers had begun to process the right object prior to fixation.     

Maternal provision of structure in a deliberate memory task in relation to their preschool children's recall

Strategic remembering emerges gradually during the preschool years. Socialization practices, specifically mother–child social interactions, might provide the foundation for the development of skills necessary for effective organization of information in memory. In the current study, 48 mothers and their 40-month-olds were engaged in the process of remembering (i.e., study and recall) categorically related picture stimuli in a laboratory context. Children’s recall was reliably predicted by the way in which mothers structured both the study and recall periods of the deliberate memory task. Specifically, maternal verbal and physical behaviors that focused on organization of items, such as sorting items into distinct groups and providing the name of a category, were most beneficial in supporting children’s memory. Moreover, some mothers employed a number of different mnemonic techniques that emphasized categorical connections among items, suggesting systematic approaches in the manner in which mothers help children to learn effective ways of remembering.     

Returning to the scene: reminders and context reinstatement enhance children's recall.

Two studies examined the efficacy of context reinstatement as a reminder in enhancing 5- to 7-year-old children's recall. In Experiment 1, children who had been interviewed shortly after an event were reinterviewed 6 months later. Children exposed to a context reminder 24 hr before the 6-month interview and children interviewed in the event context did not differ but reported significantly more information in a verbal interview than children receiving a standard interview. A control group experienced the reminder but not the event and established that the effects of the reminder were not due to new learning. There was no effect of the reminder on accuracy and no effect in reenactment. In Experiment 2, children were interviewed for the first time after 6 months, and effects of the reminder were found for both verbal recall and reenactment. Nonverbal reminders may effectively enhance the amount of information children report without decreasing accuracy.     

Continued word associations and free recall

Two experiments on the short-term free recall of 12-word associated and non-associated lists are reported. Degree of association (derived from norms obtained by continuous controlled association) and word frequency were varied. Significant facilitation as a result of the associative manipulations was obtained and clustering of the responses was positively related to this. Clustering was also affected by the method of presentation of the associated words; this occurred more often when they were grouped in presentation than when they were presented randomly arranged among other words in the list. Low frequency associated word lists were generally found to be more efficiently recalled than those of comparable association values but consisting of high frequency words.     

The role of the physical context in supporting young children's use of spatiotemporal organization in recall

Four experiments were conducted to investigate the role of the physical context in supporting 3‐ to 5‐year‐olds' use of spatiotemporal organization in recall. Children were familiarized with several target items and their corresponding landmarks arranged along a path in a model park. After familiarization, an experimenter removed the target items from the park. In Experiment 1, 3‐ and 4‐year‐olds recalled the missing items with the park either in view or out of view. When the park model was in view, 4‐ year‐olds used the order of the items along the path to structure their recall. In Experiment 2, 4‐ and 5‐year‐olds recalled the missing items with the landmarks arranged either in the same order as in familiarization or in a new order. Children used the order of landmarks along the path at test to structure their recall, even though the order of landmarks changed from familiarization to test. Experiment 3 was identical to Experiment 2, except that the path was removed from the park. Five‐year‐olds used the order of landmarks along the path at test to structure their recall when the order of landmarks remained the same from familiarization to test, but had much more difficulty doing so when the order of landmarks changed from familiarization to test. Using a more difficult task, Experiment 4 revealed that spatiotemporal organization was positively related to amount recalled. Together, these findings suggest that the structure of the physical environment plays an important role in supporting young children's use of spatiotemporal organization in recall.     

Effects of environmental context manipulated by the combination of place and task on free recall

Three experiments, using a 2 (study context) x 2 (test context) between-subjects design, were conducted to examine the effects of environmental context manipulated by the combination of two contextual elements, place and task, on free recall. Undergraduates individually studied nouns and received a free-recall test, with a 10-minute filled retention interval. The contexts were manipulated by the combination of task and place in Experiment 1, by place alone in Experiment 2, and by task alone in Experiment 3. For the manipulation of place and task, two perceptually distinctive places and two distinctive tasks (a calculation task and a fine-motor task) were used. Tasks were imposed before and after studying target items and before a free-recall test. Significant environmental-context effects were yielded in Experiment 1, but not in the other experiments. The implications of the results are discussed.     

Effects of environmental context manipulated by the combination of place and task on free recall

Three experiments, using a 2 (study context) × 2 (test context) between‐subjects design, were conducted to examine the effects of environmental context manipulated by the combination of two contextual elements, place and task, on free recall. Undergraduates individually studied nouns and received a free‐recall test, with a 10‐minute filled retention interval. The contexts were manipulated by the combination of task and place in Experiment 1, by place alone in Experiment 2, and by task alone in Experiment 3. For the manipulation of place and task, two perceptually distinctive places and two distinctive tasks (a calculation task and a fine‐motor task) were used. Tasks were imposed before and after studying target items and before a free‐recall test. Significant environmental‐context effects were yielded in Experiment 1, but not in the other experiments. The implications of the results are discussed.     

Cognate effects in sentence context depend on word class,L2 proficiency,and task

Length effects in the lexical decision latencies of children might indicate that children rely on sublexical processing and essentially approach the task as a naming task. We examined this possibility by means of the effects of neighbourhood size and articulatory suppression on lexical decision performance. Sixty-six beginning and 62 advanced readers performed a lexical decision task in a standard, articulatory suppression, or tapping condition. We found length effects on words and nonwords in the children's lexical decisions. However, the effects of neighbourhood size were similar to those reported for adult lexical decisions, rather than the effects previously found in children's naming. In addition, no effect was found of articulatory suppression. Both findings suggest that, despite clear length effects, children do not adopt a naming task approach but, like adults, base lexical decisions mainly on a lexical search. These results pose a challenge for several computational models of reading.     

Music-dependent memory in immediate and delayed word recall

Undergraduate volunteers rated a series of words for pleasantness while hearing a particular background music. The subjects in Experiment 1 received, immediately or after a 48-h delay, an unexpected word-recall test in one of the following musical cue contexts: same cue (S), different cue (D), or no cue (N). For immediate recall, context dependency (S-D) was significant but same-cue facilitation (S-N) was not. No cue effects at all were found for delayed recall, and there was a significant interaction between cue and retention interval. A similar interaction was also found in Experiment 3, which was designed to rule out an alternative explanation with respect to distraction. When the different musical selection was changed specifically in either tempo or form (genre), only pieces having an altered tempo produced significantly lower immediate recall compared with the same pieces (Experiment 2). The results support a stimulus generalization view of music-dependent memory.     

Interaction of emotion and cognition in word recall

Summary Previous research has demonstrated that the emotional properties of words and their imaginability affect their recallability and that verbal material is recalled better when it is related to subjects' current concerns. This study investigates the extent to which this effect of emotion on recall varies as a function of cognitively controllable inference processes and examines the relation of the effects of emotion to those of imaginability and concern-relatedness. Forty different words were presented visually under one of six orienting conditions that varied according to what the subject was asked to rate: their length, pronounceability, concreteness, defineability, the strength of emotion elicited by the word, and the relation of the word to personal concerns. Subjects were then asked to write as many words as they could recall. Words that aroused stronger emotion and were easier to represent in imagery were recalled better than emotionally less arousing and imaginally less evocative words, regardless of the nature of the orienting task. The evidence suggests that the emotional properties of words are evaluated automatically in an early processing stage, without requiring subjects to reflect on word content. Emotional arousal appears to mediate the effects of current concerns on recall. It is correlated with but appears to function independently of word imaginability.     

Semantic context and word frequency effects in visual word recognition

Semantic context and word frequency factors exert a strong influence on the time that it takes subjects to recognize words. Some of the explanations that have been offered for the effects of the two factors suggest that context and frequency should interact, and other explanations imply additivity. In a recent study, Schuberth and Eimas reported that context and frequency effects added to determine their subjects' reaction times in a lexical decision (word vs. nonword) task. The present experiment reexamines this question with improved procedures. The data show that context and frequency do interact, with a semantic context facilitating the processing of low-frequency words more than high-frequency words.     

Predictability as a task demand in single-trial free recall

In a series of five single-trial free recall experiments it was demonstrated how manipulations of predictability in a list learning task caused reliable effects on the recency portions of the nominal serial position curve. Predictability was defined as knowledge of when the next item in the list should appear ( interval predictability) and knowledge of when the list should end and thus when recall could start ( signal predictability). Predictability was manipulated by varying the inter-item intervals within a list according to different "encoding functions", e.g. a successive increase (Condition I ) or decrease (Condition D ) of the inter-item intervals. Predictability was also manipulated by means of post-list recall signals. The data obtained show, that depending on how the interval and the signal predictabilities were manipulated, either Condition I or Condition D lists could be made more beneficial to the recall of recency items than lists with constant inter-item intervals (Condition C ). Previous encoding, storage and retrieval models were found not to give satisfactory accounts of the obtained recency effects. Neither could any traditional rehearsal model explain the data. Instead it is proposed that the predictability of stimuli in a list learning task explains how changes in recall of recency items come about. It was also hypothesized that the temporal demands, afforded to the subjects by the different encoding functions, explained the obtained output order variations.     

Backward recall and the word length effect

The word length effect, the finding that words that have fewer syllables are recalled better than otherwise comparable words that have more syllables, is one of the benchmark effects that must be accounted for in any model of serial recall, and simulation models of immediate memory rely heavily on the finding. However, previous research has shown that the effect disappears when participants are asked to recall the items in strict backward order. The present 2 experiments replicate and extend that finding by manipulating the participant's foreknowledge of recall direction (Experiment 1) and by giving the participant repeated practice with one direction by blocking recall direction (Experiment 2). In both experiments, a word length effect obtained with forward but not backward recall. The results are problematic for all models that currently have an a priori explanation for word length effects. The finding can be accounted for but is not predicted by Scale-Independent Memory, Perception, and Learning (SIMPLE), a model in which item and order information are differentially attended to in the 2 recall directions.     

Interactions between color and word processing in a flanker task

To examine interactions between color and word attributes, participants responded, either manually or vocally, to a central target (color patch or word) flanked by a Stroop stimulus. Color and word attributes of the flanker affected both vocal and manual responding to color patches. Color and word flankers also affected manual responding to word targets, but only word flanker affected vocal responding to word targets. These results are not consistent with models (e.g., translational models) of Stroop tasks, which posit that interactions between colors and words occur only when vocal responding is required.     

Visual and semantic effects in a serial word classification task

Subjects were asked to decide as quickly as possible whether each of a series of items was one of the four target words, ‘dog’, ‘rat’, ‘boar’ and ‘mole’. The relationship of distractors to the targets was varied. Distractors which were of high visual similarity to the targets took longer to reject than those which were of lower visual similarity, and distractors which were semantically related to the targets took longer to reject than those which were unrelated. These effects were independent. There was no effect of familiarity, with non-animal distractors and pronounceable non-words rejected equally quickly. These results are qualitatively the same as those earlier found with faces (Bruce, 1979).     

Effects of a knowledge base manipulation on children's recall

Abstract

Developmental researchers have demonstrated the potent role of a knowledge base on children's memory performance. However, the only studies to experimentally assess a causal connection between children's knowledge and memory have failed to find such connection (DeMarie-Dreblow, 1991; Muir-Broaddus, Rorer, Branden, & George, 1995). In this study, we extended the length of training relative to earlier studies with samples of first- and seventh-grade children, incorporating knowledge training into their school curriculum. Both groups of children displayed an increase in knowledge as a result of training and corresponding significant improvements in recall, consistent with a causal relation between knowledge and memory. Although we believe that some of the benefits for the older children were associated with improvements in strategic organization, most of the gains, for both the older and younger children, could be attributed to item-specific effects of knowledge on recall.     

Stress and context in auditory word recognition

Recent work in psycholinguistics has revealed that the role of lexical stress in auditory word recognition may be a complex one involving other potential sources of information. In the present investigation, the nature of lexical stress effects on auditory word recognition in context is examined. The ability of subjects to identify words based on the prosodic pattern of the word is examined for the words in isolation and in a sentence context. The results revealed a small influence of stress on the identification of the stimulus waveforms relative to a large effect of context. The data indicate that lexical stress is used in the identification of the words; however, its role is minor compared to the importance of contextual information.This article is based on sections of a doctoral dissertation presented to Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana. This research was supported in part by NIH research grant NS-12179-08 to Indiana University and a Graduate Student Grant-in-Aid of Research from Indiana University.