Quota vs positional power in four-person apex games

In coalition formation experiments, which coalitions will form and how players in coalitions will allocate their jointly gained rewards are typically predicted as a function of the players' relative power. In this paper, we isolated two logically independent sources of a player's power: the player's contribution to the rewards obtainable by coalitions of which he may be a member (“quota power”), and the number of distinct coalitions which a player may join (“positional power”). The separation of the two types of power is clearly shown in apex games, where a single player (Apex) attempts to lure any of the other players (Base) from the coalition of all Bases. A series of four-person computer-controlled apex and nonapex characteristic function games, varying with respect to the relationship of quota power to positional power, were played by 15 quartets of male players. Quota power was strongly manifested in all outcome measures, while positional power appeared only as a bias toward equal allocations of reward when coalitions among players of equal positional power formed. Neither of two social psychological theories that are applicable, pivotal power and weighted probability theory, predicted coalition frequencies. In a test of five solution concepts, the competitive bargaining set predicted payoff allocations better than either of the two aforementioned theories, the kernel, or an equal-split model.     

Resources and alternatives in coalition formation: The effects on payoff,self‐serving behaviour,and bargaining length

A consistent finding in coalition research is that the payoff of coalition members is related to (a) the resources they contribute to the coalition, and to (b) the number of alternative coalitions they can form. These two factors are, however, often intertwined. A greater number of resources tends to go hand in hand with a greater number of alternatives, leaving unanswered how both factors affect coalition behaviour. This paper attempts to clarify the interplay of resources and alternatives by disentangling the two in a newly developed coalition paradigm. Results indicated that participants base their payoff allocation on both resources and alternatives, but suggest that self‐serving behaviour is more related to alternatives. Furthermore, resources and alternatives had a distinct effect on the bargaining process. It was shown that differences in alternatives led to longer bargaining. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Get angry, get out: The interpersonal effects of anger communication in multiparty negotiation

Research on multiparty negotiation has investigated how parties form coalitions to secure payoffs but has not addressed how emotions may affect such coalition decisions. Extending research on bilateral negotiations which has generally argued that it is beneficial to communicate anger, we argue that it constitutes a considerable risk when there are more than two people present at the negotiation table. Using a computer-mediated coalition game we show that communicating anger is a risky strategy in multiparty bargaining. The main findings of three studies were that participants: (1) form negative impressions of players who communicate anger and therefore (2) exclude such players from coalitions and from obtaining a payoff share, but (3) make considerable concessions on those rare occasions that they choose to form a coalition with an angry player, or (4) when they had to form a coalition with an angry player. We discuss the implications of these results for theorizing on emotions, negotiations, and coalition formation.     

Amae,intimacy, and the early moral self

I believe the universal aspects of Doi's concept of amae have a dual origin in the biologically based motives of infancy and in the expectable adpative experiences of the caregiving relationship. Our theory, arising from recent research, is that the necessary intimacy of this relationship and the exercise of these motives leads to early relationship motives and early moral motives. These in turn find representational coherence in the 3-year-old's narrative self that contains a continual internal dialogue with one or more significant others who are comforting, encouraging, watchful, and critical. The narrative self may also contain an “executive sense of we,” giving the child more of a sense of obligation and power. Many emotionally engaging experiences in infancy are stored as procedural knowledge and are influential later as an “affective core of self” without being accessible to consciousness. Amae also seems based on procedural knowledge. Future research in Japan and the United States will benefit from operationalizing concepts related to amae and to emotional availability. Effects of gender, temperament, and conflicts within and across generations can then be examined.     

Motives and Values to Achieve: Different Constructs With Different Effects

ABSTRACT Motives to achieve and values associated with achievement were conceptualized as distinct and independent personality constructs, one nonconscious, the other conscious, each predictive of a different type of achievement-related behavior It was hypothesized that (a) motive and value measures would be uncorrelated, (b) motives would predict “operant” or spontaneous behaviors while values would predict “respondent” or stimulus-driven behaviors, and (c) motives and values would interact such that subjects with high values relating to achievement would perform better than those with low values, but only when their motives were also high Hypotheses (a) and (b) were strongly supported m two studies, and Hypothesis (c) was supported in Study 2 In that study, the motive for achievement was a particularly strong predictor of operant math performance among those subjects who valued achievement as opposed to affiliation The findings suggest that nonconscious (motive) and conscious (value) measures are both useful in different cases–the former for predicting “real” (doing) activity, the latter for predicting self-report (thinking) responses Questions concerning how motives and values might combine to predict different kinds of behavior are addressed     

Instructional Effects on Word Association Commonality in High and Low “Schizophrenic” College Students

In an attempt to assess the ability of normal Ss to give uncommon word associations and of “schizophrenic” Ss to give common ones, the effects of three types of instruction on the word association performance of 144 college students were measured. All Ss, including those with valid MMPI profiles suggestive of schizophrenia were able to increase their response commonality under instructions to give the word “most people” would give, and to decrease their commonality under instructions to give a word “no one else” would give, relative to the free association condition. Though Ss with high MMPI Schizophrenia scores produced more original associations under all conditions, there was an apparent floor effect on the production of popular responses under the “no one else” instructions.     

Allport's Life and Allport's Psychology

ABSTRACT This article addresses some of the relations between Gordon Allport's life and his psychological theories, focusing on two themes: (a) Allport's junior-year prize-winning recounting of Harvard's “Rinehart” legend–the changes and distortions he introduced in his version of the core legend suggest altruistic sublimation of motives for power and prestige; and (b) Allport's relationship with “Jenny,” the mother of “Ross,” his college roommate (he twice published her letters to him as Letters from Jenny.). I suggest that the need to differentiate himself from Ross was one contributing factor to such Allportian theoretical notions as the functional autonomy of motives and the sharp differentiation between “normal” and “abnormal.”     

The Personality and Emotions of Men

Summary

The present study investigated the effect of required effort (moderate vs. low), level of expertise (“Dr.” vs. “Mr.”), and sex of the psychologist on compliance with the recommendations of school psychologists. One hundred forty-four elementary school teachers served as subjects. The psychologists evaluated a child from each teacher's class and recommended that she send for materials which would help the child's perceptual and reading development. Results indicate that compliance varied directly with required effort, but was unrelated to level of expertise and sex. It is argued that psychologists in schools may influence teachers as a function of legitimate power, whereas expert power is operative when dealing with the public.     

Strength-is-Weakness: The (ir)relevant relation between resources and payoffs in coalition formation

A key observation in coalition formation is that bargainers who control many resources are often excluded from coalitions by bargainers who control few resources, the Strength-is-Weakness effect. We argue that this effect is contingent on whether resources provide a legitimate claim to be included in a coalition. Across three incentivized coalition experiments (n = 2745; 915 triads), three participants (player A had four resources, player B had three resources, player C had two resources) negotiated about a payoff of 90 monetary units. Depending on condition, these resources were obtained randomly, earned, or earned and proportionally linked to the payoff. Results showed player As were less included when resources were obtained randomly and more often included in coalitions when resources were earned and/or proportionally linked to the payoff. This provides evidence that the Strength-is-Weakness is contingent on the legitimacy of the resources.     

Coalitions and Family Problem Solving with Preadolescents in Referred,At-Risk,and Comparison Families

This study tested the hypothesis that the mother-father coalition, parent-child coalitions, and parental warmth expressed toward the child are associated with family problem solving in families with a preadolescent child referred for treatment of behavior problems (n = 30 ), families with a child at-risk for conduct disorder (n = 68 ), and a sample of comparison families (n = 90 ). Referred and at-risk families displayed less effective problem solving. A regression analysis, which controlled for gender of the child, family structure, family income, marital satisfaction, and severity of child problems, showed that strong parental coalitions were linked to low levels of family problem solving in at-risk and referred families. Parent-child coalitions had little apparent impact while parental warmth was highly correlated with better family problem solving. The results may be interpreted as evidence for a tendency for parents in at-risk and referred families to “scapegoat” a preadolescent during family problem-solving sessions. This may undermine progress on family problem solutions and may complicate family-based prevention and treatment programs that use family problem-solving sessions.     

The effects of stimulus structure and familiarity on same-different comparison

It was hypothesized that performance in the same-different comparison task is based on two modes of processing: (1) structural processes that organize the detailed parts of a stimulus into a well-formed whole, and (2)analytic processes that decompose the stimulus into features. This hypothesis was supported, but with the unexpected finding of individual differences in the mode of processing underlying “same” responses. Those Ss in the “same” condition whose reaction times were faster for symmetrical than for asymmetrical patterns supported the hypothesis for structural processes. The remaining Ss in the “same” condition, as well as all the Ss in the “different” condition, were unaffected by symmetry. These Ss supported the hypothesis for analytic processes. Although familiarity effects were obtained for both structural and analytic Ss, the rotation of the familiar patterns into an unfamiliar orientation virtually eliminated familiarity effects for the structural Ss, but left them intact for analytic Ss.     

Coalition formation in characteristic function games: Competitive tests of three theories

Two experiments tested the bargaining, minimum resource, and minimum power theories of coalition formation in situations involving different payoffs for some of the winning coalitions (characteristic function games). In the first experiment, a triadic resource distribution was employed and payoffs for the coalitions were specified in such a way that each of the three theories predicted the formation of a different coalition. The coalition predicted by minimum power theory formed the most frequently, and the mean divisions of the payoffs among coalition members were also closest to the predictions of minimum power theory. However, the most frequent coalition was not only the one predicted by minimum power theory, it was also the one having the largest payoff per member. There-fore, a second experiment was conducted, which employed a tetradic resource distribution and specified the coalition payoffs in such a way that (a) each of the theories predicted the formation of a different coalition and (b) none of the predicted coalitions was the one with the largest payoff per member. Although the mean payoff divisions in the coalitions in this experiment were closest to those predicted by bargaining theory, the coalition that formed most frequently was not one of those predicted by any of the theories. Rather, it was the one having the largest payoff per member. None of the three theories is able to account adequately for the results of both experiments. The difficulties that the theories have in dealing with coalition formation in situations in which there are different payoffs for winning are discussed.     

COALITION AND COMMUNICATION

Based on the premises that communication behavior varies as a function of social relationships and that coalitions in triads are a significant form of social structure, this study explored forms of communication behavior related to processes of coalition formation and termination. As expected, communication accessibility was greater within the coalition than between the excluded person and members of the coalition, but communication content differed only in the relative frequency of expressions of negative sentiment. Accessibility did not differ significantly between coalescing partners prior to, during, and subsequent to their coalition, but there were significantly more “pressure” statements in the negotiations prior to coalition. The utility of a three-person iterated matrix game was demonstrated for studies of communication and coalition, and the implications of the choice of a unit of analysis for the study of communication were discussed.     

Time Records in Human Maze Learning and their Comparison with Maze Records

Nine measures of role-taking in the tradition of Flavell and two measures of classification were administered to 64 boys and girls in India in four age groups: 6–7, 7–8, 8–9, and 9–10 years. The results lend cross-cultural support to the hypothesis that certain classification skills underlie this type of role-taking ability. The inappropriateness of searching for developmental relationships with some parametric statistics was also demonstrated with these data. The influence of two types of role-taking question on role-taking ability was also assessed. Role-taking questions were asked after the Ss had seen a cartoon sequence. On one type of role-taking question (a “next” question) Ss were asked how another child would think the cartoon ended if shown only the beginning. On the other type of role-taking question (a “before” question) Ss were asked how another child would think the cartoon began when shown only the end. Cartoon content was shown to influence role-taking ability in response to “next” questions.     

Possibility,chance and necessity

Those who deny the usefulness of the concept of “motive” for psychology commonly bring two arguments in support of theirview. The first is that the whole notion of “motive” is “animistic” and “folklorish”, since a motive cannot be directly observed. The second is that “motives” cannot be accurately observed, and therefore are beyond the scope of scientific study, because (a) they are “the secret of the agent”, and (b) the agenthimself has no indubitable knowledge of his “motives”.

In a recent article, Professor MacIver defends the view that the imputation of “motives” is necessary to a complete explanation of behaviour. To the first of the above criticisms, he replies that such a view neglects a part of reality and that since “motives” exist they should be studied by psychology. This reply does nothing to demonstrate the necessity of imputing motives in order to obtain a complete explanation of behaviour. To the second criticism he replies (a) “motives” are not the secret of the agent, and (b) we can only assert that the agent has mistaken his “motive” if we can gain indepen-dent knowledge of it. We can do this, Professor MacIver asserts, by observing typical behaviour in typical circum-stances, and making inferences from the coherence of total situations.

Professor MacIver's replies to the second of the above criticisms are valid only if “motive” is defined as equivalent to “need”, so that we can say “under such-and-such conditions, such-and-such behaviour occurs”. A statement of this type says nothing about the agent's awareness of his goal. When the term “consciousness” is carefully defined along the lines suggested by Boring, the methods of imputation described by Professor MacIver can be seen to lead us only to the agent's “drives”, or “needs”, defined without reference to the agent's awareness of his goal. Professor MacIver uses “motives” to mean “awareness of the goal”, but gives us no clue as to how they may be imputed, and adduces no proof that their imputation is necessary.

A possible criterion of the presence of a “motive” is the degree of direction observable in the organism's varied reac-tions in response to frustration, though the more precise definition of such a criterion must await further experiment.

In view of the ambiguity of the term “motive” and its penumbra of false suggestion, it is desirable that the term be dropped from psychology.     

The Luscher Color Test: An Investigation of Validity and Underlying Assumptions

This experiment investigated several underlying assumptions and one aspect of the validity of the Luscher Color Test, a projective test developed in Europe and relatively unknown in the United States. It was predicted that Ss would report increases in “negative” feelings to the color red, while blue would have the opposite effect, and yellow would produce an increase in “positive” feelings. Twenty-three male and 23 female Ss rated their immediate reactions to the LCT colors on seven mood adjectives, following which they were given the short version LCT and the IPAT Anxiety Scale. The results supported the hypotheses regarding blue and yellow, but not those regarding red nor the validity of the LCT as an anxiety measuring instrument.     

The Effects of Subject-and Experimenter-Induced Defensive Response Sets on Picture-Frustration Test Reactions

Thirty male college students, half scoring high and half low on the MMPI K-scale, were administered a multiple-choice (M-C) modification of the Rosenzweig P-F Study under three instructional sets. Two of these sets were induced by E and compared with the third which represented S's normal test-taking set. The two induced sets included (1) a “should” set in which concern for the social consequences of behavior was accentuated, and (2) a “wish” set in which concern for social consequences was minimized, and freedom of self-expression was accentuated.

It was hypothesized that Ss making extremely high or low scores on the K-scale would likewise score differently on the M-C, P-F test. High K, defined by its authors as a measure of test defensiveness, and low K, as test-taking candidness, would be associated with P-F score patterns reflecting these test-taking attitudes: High K Ss showing Impunitive (M) dominant reaction patterns and low K showing Extrapunitive (E) or Intropunitive (I) dominant patterns. These hypothèses were confirmed except that intropunitive responses were extremely rare in the entire subject sample.

It was further hypothesized that the typical high K pattern would be induced in low K Ss under the “should” instructional set and the low K pattern would be elicited from high K Ss under “wish” instructions. This expectation was confirmed. It was suggested that the technique of manipulating responses via test taking instructions can generate correction factors useful in projective as well as structured personality tests.     

The Rôle of Clasping Activity in Adaptive Behavior of the Infant Chimpanzee: I. Delayed Response

Forty male and 40 female volunteer college students were divided into two groups. Half were exposed to actual tape recorded verbal reports of violent events, and half to similar reports of nonviolent happenings. Ss who had been angered by insult prior to being exposed to violent tapes displayed significantly more aggression than Ss in an insult, nonviolent condition and Ss in a no-insult, violent condition on a subsequent “extrasensory learning” task supposedly involving shocks for incorrect responses. An unexpected finding was that Ss who had not been insulted administered significantly higher “shocks” after exposure to nonviolent reports than Ss in the no-insult, violent group. No significant sex differences were found. Results were interpreted as failing to support the catharsis hypothesis, and comparisons with the effects of visually witnessed violence were made.     

Coalition formation: Political attitudes and power

In this study 2 theories have been tested: Minimum Range theory (de Swaan, 1970; Leierson, 1970) and Minimal Resource theory (Caplow, 1956; Riker, 1962; Gamson, 1964). In an experimental simulation (Runkel and McGrath, 1972)political attitudes (left, centre and right) and power differences (40 seats in parliament, 30 seats and 20 seats) have been induced. The results suggest that in the beginning of the bargaining process people communicate about the composition of the coalition programme. The minimal range theory may explain this behaviour: parties with more similar ideological interests do coalesce. Later on, one more often bargains about the division of the outcomes, i.e. portfolios. Minimum Resource theory only partly explains the formed coalitions. Minimal winning coalitions, which are predicted by Minimum Resource theory, are formed more often within centre-left-coalitions. This is not the case for centre-right-coalitions. It is discussed that the link between the parity norm and minimal winning coalitions, which is assumed by Minimum Resource theory, possiblv does not hold in this experiment. The parity norm being used by right together with centres strong position leads to the frequent occurrence of minimal winning centre-left-coalitions.