ON THE RELATIVE REINFORCING EFFECTS OF CHOICE AND DIFFERENTIAL CONSEQUENCES

Research on the reinforcing effects of providing choice-making opportunities to individuals with developmental disabilities (i.e., allowing them to choose reinforcers or tasks) has produced inconsistent results, perhaps because the mechanisms underlying such effects remain unclear. Choice may produce a reinforcement effect because it is correlated with differential consequences (i.e., choice may increase one's access to higher preference stimuli), or it may have reinforcement value independent of (or in addition to) the chosen stimulus. In Experiment 1, we used a concurrent-operants arrangement to assess preference for a choice condition (in which participants selected one of two available reinforcers) relative to a no-choice condition (in which the therapist selected the same reinforcers on a yoked schedule). All 3 participants preferred the choice option. In Experiment 2, we altered the schedules so that the participant selected one of two lower preference reinforcers in the choice condition, whereas the therapist selected a higher preference stimulus for the participant either half or all of the time in the no-choice condition. Participants typically allowed the therapist to select reinforcers for them (i.e., they allocated responding to the no-choice condition) when it resulted in greater access to higher preference stimuli.     

THE SUBJECTIVIST CONSEQUENCES OF EXPRESSIVISM

Jackson and Pettit argue that expressivism in metaethics collapses into subjectivism. A sincere utterer of a moral claim must believe that she has certain attitudes to be expressed. The truth-conditions of that belief then allegedly provide truth-conditions also for the moral utterance. Thus, the expressivist cannot deny that moral claims have subjectivist truth-conditions. Critics have argued that this argument fails as stated. I try to show that expressivism does have subjectivist repercussions in a way that avoids the problems of the Jackson-Pettit argument. My argument, based on the norms for asserting moral sentences, attempts to tie expressivists to a more modest form of subjectivism than the previous arguments.     

BELIEFS ABOUT THE CONSEQUENCES OF MATERNAL EMPLOYMENT FOR CHILDREN

This study investigated the psychometric properties of the Beliefs About the Consequences of Maternal Employment (BACMEC) scale in a sample of 570 pregnant women and 550 of their husbands/partners. Both the costs and benefits subscales showed excellent internal consistency reliability. The two subscales emerged as two separate factors in factor analyses, both for the mothers'data and for the fathers'data. Construct validity was indicated by moderate correlations with a scale assessing traditional versus egalitarian sex-role attitudes. The two subscales significantly differentiated a group of mothers who favored early entry into childcare from a group who favored later entry. Fathers'scores were quite close to those of mothers, indicating that they have similar beliefs about the consequences of maternal employment for children.     

BELIEFS ABOUT THE CONSEQUENCES OF MATERNAL EMPLOYMENT FOR CHILDREN

A 24-item scale was developed to measure Beliefs about the Consequences of Maternal Employment for Children (BACMEC), including beliefs about both benefits (13 items) and costs (11 items). Studies of five samples ( n = 375) demonstrate that the total BACMEC scale and its subscales are highly reliable and have good convergent, divergent, and con-current validity. Scores on the Costs Subscale predicted greater sex-role traditionalism, women's employment status (not employed), and an older age of child at which mother's employment was deemed acceptable. Benefits scores predicted women's employment status (employed) and work hours (longer), younger age of child when maternal work is accept-able, and greater support for policies to aid working parents. The scales were not susceptible to a social desirability bias. Suggestions are provided for the use of the BACMEC scale in future research concerning employment and families.     

THE AFFECTIVE CONSEQUENCES OF MINIMIZING WOMEN'S BODY IMAGE CONCERNS

We propose that women regularly anticipate and receive messages from others that trivialize the severity of their body image concerns. Moreover, we suggest that these minimizing messages can heighten women's negative affective reactions to body image threats, particularly if they internalize them. Two studies provided support for these ideas. In Study 1, women and men estimated the likelihood that others would minimize the feelings of a woman who felt badly about her body. As expected, women estimated a high likelihood of minimization. In Study 2, women internalized or rejected a message that either minimized or validated the severity of body image concerns before undergoing a body image threat themselves. Women felt heightened negative affect following the threat if they internalized the minimizing message, but they maintained their prethreat affective state if they rejected the minimizing message or internalized the validating message. The discussion focuses on the implications of these findings for research on effective social support and clinical interventions.     

A META-ANALYSIS OF THE ANTECEDENTS AND CONSEQUENCES OF WORKPLACE SEXUAL HARASSMENT

Sexual harassment (SH) has been identified as one of the most damaging and ubiquitous barriers to career success and satisfaction for women. This study meta-analyzed data from 41 studies, with a total sample size of nearly 70,000 respondents, to examine several negative consequences of workplace SH as well as how situational factors may play a role in facilitating these occurrences. SH experiences are associated with negative outcomes such as decreased job satisfaction, lower organizational commitment, withdrawing from work, ill physical and mental health, and even symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder. In addition, organizational climate for SH figured prominently in facilitating these occurrences.     

THE INSULAR MOTHER: HER PROBLEMS IN PARENT-CHILD TREATMENT

Eighteen mother-child dyads were referred for psychological help because of the children's oppositional behaviors and the mothers' aversive reactions to the children. All dyads were from low income families in which the mothers reported themselves to be relatively isolated from social contact in their communities. Following a baseline phase, the mothers were trained to modify their children's oppositional behaviors through time out and a point system. Fourteen of the dyads were observed in three phases of the study: baseline, parent training or treatment, and a 1-year follow-up period. In Phases one and two, child opposition and mother aversive reactions to the children were measured twice weekly by professional observers in the home settings. During Phase three (follow-up), these observations occurred twice per month. In addition, the mothers' self-reported contacts with people in their communities were obtained immediately after each observation. Results showed significant improvement in the mother-child problems during the parent training or treatment phase. However, the problems returned to baseline levels of occurrence during the follow-up phase. The self-report findings indicated that number of mother contacts with friends was an inverse predictor of these problems. On days marked by high proportions of friend contacts, mother-child problems were lower in frequency than on days marked by low proportions of friend contacts. These correlational findings were taken to suggest that a mother's extra-family social contacts may influence her child interaction patterns at home. This possibility was discussed as a factor in the long-term success of parent training as a treatment strategy.     

THE CONTINUING INTERACTION OF SCIENCE AND RELIGION

Abstract. Stephen I Gould's notion of non‐overlapping magisteria (NOMA) is neither experientially supported nor rationally justifiable. Influence flows between science and religion, as when evolutionary thinking encouraged theology to adopt a kenotic view of the Creator's act of allowing creatures to be and to make themselves. Alleged simplistic dichotomies between science and religion, such as motivated belief contrasted with fideistic assertion, are seen to be false. Promising topics in the currently vigorous dialogue between science and religion include relational ontology, eschatological credibility, and ethical issues relating to advances in human genetics.     

THE INTERACTION OF BIASES IN THE EVALUATION OF MANAGERS IN SINGAPORE

In this study, independent samples from the same population responded to three simulated situations in which sex and other independent variables were manipulated. In the first two cases, discriminatory decisions against women managers by male respondents were clearly discerned. However, in the third case where sex as an independent variable interacted with developmental potential, the pattern of evaluative decisions changed. A high-potential female was treated as favourably as a high-potential male while the low-potential male received the lowest selection rate from the male respondents. While the finding is not altogether surprising in a meritocratic society like Singapore, the study points to the need to explore the interactive effects which sex bias may have with other attitudes in a specific social context.     

THE EFFECTS OF A CLASSROOM MANAGER ROLE ON THE SOCIAL INTERACTION PATTERNS AND SOCIAL STATUS OF WITHDRAWN KINDERGARTEN STUDENTS

We examined the effects of assigning a classroom manager's role on the frequency of social interactions and the sociometric standing of three withdrawn kindergarten students. Results showed that when the three socially withdrawn students were placed in the manager's role they substantially increased the frequency of their positive social initiations during free-play time, were the recipients of many more positive and significantly fewer negative social bids from their peers, were rated more favorably by their classmates on a sociometric rating scale, and were selected more frequently as best friends by their peers. In addition, follow-up data suggested partial maintenance of treatment effects when students no longer occupied manager positions.     

青少年亲子关系与攻击性行为的关系研究

以670名小学生和初、高中学生为被试,采用问卷法考察青少年攻击性行为的特点,以及亲子关系(亲子依恋、父母教养方式)对于攻击性行为的影响。结果表明:(1)母依恋与父依恋均与攻击性行为及其各个维度有显著的负相关。(2)父母教养方式除了F4(父亲偏爱被试)、M5(母亲偏爱被试)与攻击性行为及其各个维度没有相关外,其他各个维度与攻击性行为及其各个维度均有显著的正相关或负相关。(3)亲子关系对于攻击性行为的预测上,M3(母亲拒绝、否认)、F1(父情感温暖理解)、M2(母过分干涉保护)、M4(母亲惩罚、严厉)这4个维度能预测攻击性行为23%的变异量。     

THE EFFECT OF INTERACTION BEHAVIOR ON SOURCE CREDIBILITY,HOMOPHILY, AND INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION

This study investigated the relationship between interaction behavior in a small group setting and the resulting perceptions group members have of one another. Trained raters coded the interaction behavior of subjects, who discussed a task-oriented topic in small groups. Results indicate that interaction behavior can account for a substantial percentage of the variance in group members’ perceptions of one another. Apparently, the same interaction behavior may simultaneously result in both more positive and more negative perceptions on the part of other group members, suggesting that different interaction strategies are appropriate for varying desired personal outcomes.     

A PRELIMINARY EVALUATION OF EMPIRICALLY DERIVED CONSEQUENCES FOR THE TREATMENT OF PICA

Individualized treatment packages were developed for 3 children with high-rate severe pica using a discrimination training paradigm and a behavioral assessment-based procedure known as empirically derived consequences. Children received empirically derived reinforcers for eating under appropriate stimulus conditions (i.e., eating food only from a plate and placemat that served as a discriminative stimulus) and empirically derived punishers for attempts to engage in pica. This treatment package resulted in marked reductions in pica and an increase in appropriate eating for all 3 children in a “baited” analogue condition. In addition, low rates of pica were maintained for 9 months for all 3 children. These results suggest that treatment effectiveness may be enhanced when behavioral assessment data are used to identify potent consequences.     

MEDIA CONTRIBUTIONS TO AFRICAN AMERICAN GIRLS' FOCUS ON BEAUTY AND APPEARANCE: EXPLORING THE CONSEQUENCES OF SEXUAL OBJECTIFICATION

The media are dominated by images of women as sex objects whose value is based on their appearance. These portrayals can potentially limit girls' self-perceptions and influence their attitudes regarding the importance of appearance. However, relatively little is known about how African American adolescent girls are affected by these images. Using data from a survey of 176 African American adolescent girls (mean age = 15), this project examined associations between Black media use and African American girls' focus on beauty and appearance. Results suggest that both exposure to and identification with portrayals of Black women as sex objects contribute to African American adolescent girls emphasizing the importance of appearance in their own lives and for girls in general. When all the media variables were tested together in hierarchical regression analyses, identification with favorite television character, identification with more objectifying female music artists, and identification with less objectifying female artists emerged as the more consistent predictors of the outcomes examined. Findings are discussed in terms of their implications for girls' overall development.     

AWKWARD SILENCES: BEHAVIORAL ANTECEDENTS AND CONSEQUENCES OF THE CONVERSATIONAL LAPSE

Audio tape-recordings of 30-minute conversations between pairs of strangers (N=90) were scored for the frequency and duration of conversational lapses, interactive silences of three or more seconds occurring at the recognizable completion of a turn-constructional unit. Ten-utterance segments of conversation immediately prior and immediately subsequent to lapses were transcribed from the tapes of 45 of the conversations characterized by multiple lapses. Pre-and post lapse behaviors were coded as (A) (B) discloses, questions, edifies, acknowledges, advises, interprets, confirms, reflects. Also coded were gaps and laughter outbursts. Lag sequential analysis of the pre lapse data indicated that behavior sequences prior to lapses were characterized by a pattern of “minimal response” by one of the participants. Post lapse sequences were characterized by the presence of question-answer adjacency pairs.     

THE EFFECTS OF ATTRIBUTION AND SOCIAL CONTEXT ON SUPERIORS' INFLUENCE AND INTERACTION WITH LOW PERFORMING SUBORDINATES

Organizations need to create the conditions in which superiors use their power effectively and appropriately, perhaps especially when subordinates are performing inadequately. Ninety undergraduates became managers who interacted with a low performing worker who demonstrated either insufficient ability or motivation. The managers also believed that their goals were cooperatively, individualistically, or competitively linked to the subordinate. Results identify situational variables that moderate superiors' influence. Generally, the social context affected the orientation to the subordinate in that cooperative compared to competitive superiors expected mutual assistance, communicated supportively, and gave assistance. Attribution affected the choice of influence methods and the attitudes of superiors. Superiors used threats and came to dislike the low effort subordinate, but wanted to work again with the low ability subordinate. Cooperation fostered attraction even when the other performed ineffectively, provided the reason was inadequate ability and not inadequate motivation. Evidence also suggests that competition creates a rigid response to the low performing subordinate whereas cooperative supervisors flexibly respond to the specific shortcoming of subordinates.     

PSYCHOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES OF MULTIPLE SOCIAL ROLES

This research relies on data from a survey conducted in 1981 to explore the potential negative and positive consequences of having multiple roles. The responses of 500 employed women to questions about self-esteem, satisfaction with careers, partners, and children, and perceptions of life stress and pleasure were examined. The number of roles held by respondents ranged from 1 to 5 (worker, partner, parent, volunteer, and student). The results indicated that higher self-esteem and greater job satisfaction were associated with holding more roles. However, neither marital nor parental satisfaction was consistently related to the number of roles held. Although the majority of working women reported their lives to be stressful, this finding was independent of the number of roles held, and women with more roles did not consistently report a greater number of stressful life domains. These findings suggest that, for employed women, having multiple roes may enhance psychological well-being.