信任及其对公共财物两难博弈中合作行为影响

社会两难的行为动机研究认为,害怕和贪婪是人们选择不合作的原因。信任的心理学研究为社会两难的合作行为提供了另一种观点,即害怕被利用的背后实际上体现了博弈者对对方的信任的缺失。鉴于传统社会两难范式存在难以区分信任和合作两个因素的问题,本研究设计了“信任一合作”二阶段模拟实验,通过操作重复信托博弈中的信息反馈,研究虚拟多人信托博弈中初始信任和基于经验的信任对随后的公共财物两难博弈中合作行为的影响,结果发现：（1）初始信任对基于经验的信任的建立具有一定的积极影响,但是它对合作行为的作用远不如随后的基于经验的信任;（2）基于经验的信任水平高的被试在随后的公共财物两难博弈中也表现出较高的合作行为。     

惩罚和社会价值取向对公共物品两难中人际信任与合作行为的影响

通过两个计算机情境模拟实验, 采用“取消惩罚”范式, 引入社会价值取向变量, 发现惩罚对人际信任和合作行为具有消极影响, 具体表现为当惩罚取消后, 经历过惩罚的被试的人际信任水平显著低于无惩罚条件被试的水平。惩罚对博弈者合作行为的影响在社会价值取向不同的博弈者之间存在显著差异：经历过惩罚的亲社会型被试在惩罚取消阶段的合作程度显著低于惩罚存在阶段的合作程度, 并且显著低于无惩罚条件被试的相应水平。惩罚通过亲社会型博弈者的人际信任水平对合作程度产生间接负效应, 即惩罚程度越强, 亲社会型博弈者的人际信任水平越低, 进而使其合作程度也下降。     

道德与关系惩罚对初中生公共物品困境中合作行为的影响

本研究模拟公共物品两难困境范式,以初中生为被试,通过两个实验分别考察道德惩罚和关系惩罚对不同性别和社会价值取向个体合作行为的影响。结果发现:(1)两种惩罚条件下初中生的合作水平均显著高于无惩罚条件,但当惩罚撤除后只有关系惩罚条件下的效应还存在;(2)初中女生在两种惩罚条件下的合作水平均显著高于无惩罚条件,而男生只在关系惩罚条件下出现该情况;(3)亲社会取向与亲自我取向初中生在两种惩罚阶段均表现出更高的合作水平,但在惩罚撤除后,只有亲社会取向者保持了高合作水平。这些结果表明,关系惩罚的作用较为持久,且对男生的影响更为突出,不过两种惩罚在亲社会取向者身上均显现出延后效应。     

从归因视角探讨公共物品两难中惩罚系统对合作的影响

社会两难中惩罚系统对合作的影响是当前的一个研究热点。前人研究发现惩罚系统可以促进合作,但也有学者提出惩罚系统对合作动机具有破坏作用,存在不一致结论。且这些研究大多只关注金钱惩罚而忽略了社会惩罚。本文采用2(惩罚类型:金钱,社会)×2(惩罚频率:高,低)×2(阶段:有惩罚,无惩罚)混合设计,利用"惩罚撤除"实验范式,比较了社会高低频惩罚和金钱高低频惩罚对合作、归因以及预期的影响。并探讨了合作、归因、预期之间的相互关系,结果发现:(1)金钱和社会惩罚均可提高被试合作水平;(2)金钱高频惩罚减少了对合作行为的内归因,惩罚撤除后合作行为下降,而低频惩罚没有出现下降效应;(3)社会惩罚增加了对合作的内归因,高低频惩罚在移除之后均保持较高水平,且之前的惩罚频率越高,保持效果越好;(4)合作、预期与内归因正相关,外归因负相关,同时合作与预期正相关。     

社会困境中同伴行为、合作信念对合作变化的影响

本研究采用连续式公共物品困境,考察不同类型的个体在同伴遵守和违反均等规范两种条件下合作的前后变化及其可能的机制。结果发现：（1）依据行为决策对被试进行的分类与其社会价值取向之间不存在相关;（2）一人违反均等条件下被试的合作水平高于多人违反均等条件下的合作水平;（3）高贡献者在前后两次互动中维持较高的合作水平和信念水平;（4）低贡献者第二次决策时比第一次决策时更合作,这可能是由于他们的合作信念提高。     

公共物品困境中自我权力和他人权力对初中生合作行为的影响

本研究分别操纵被试稳定的权力（实验1）和不稳定的权力（实验2）,并与不同权力个体进行公共物品困境任务,以考察了自我权力和他人权力对初中生合作行为的交互作用及其权力稳定性在其中的作用。结果发现,在权力稳定情境下,高权力的初中生合作水平低于低权力组和控制组,而在权力不稳定的情境下,高权力的初中生合作水平高于低权力组。无论权力稳定与否,与低权力同伴合作时,低权力者的合作水平均显著高于与高权力同伴合作时。     

公共物品困境中自我权力和他人权力对初中生合作行为的影响

本研究分别操纵被试稳定的权力（实验1）和不稳定的权力（实验2）,并与不同权力个体进行公共物品困境任务,以考察了自我权力和他人权力对初中生合作行为的交互作用及其权力稳定性在其中的作用。结果发现,在权力稳定情境下,高权力的初中生合作水平低于低权力组和控制组,而在权力不稳定的情境下,高权力的初中生合作水平高于低权力组。无论权力稳定与否,与低权力同伴合作时,低权力者的合作水平均显著高于与高权力同伴合作时。     

公共物品困境中的突显身份效应及合作动机对合作行为影响

从合作动机的激发与破坏的角度探讨公共物品困境中突显身份对合作行为的影响,同时考察社会价值取向与突显身份之间的关系。结果表明：突显合作者与突显不合作者两种方式都会提高被试的合作水平;两种突显方式的作用机制不同。突显合作者条件下,被试的合作行为受内在动机和外在动机的共同影响。而突显不合作者则会破坏被试合作的内在动机,外在动机对提高合作行为起主要作用;突显合作者条件下,合作取向的被试更多受内在动机的影响,而非合作取向的被试则更多受外在动机的影响。在突显不合作者的条件下,合作取向和非合作取向被试的合作行为都受外在动机的影响较大。     

两难对策中价值取向对群体合作行为的影响

采用实验室方法,通过两难对策任务的情景模拟,研究群体成员的价值取向对群体合作行为的影响。62名被试参加了实验。结果发现：（1）群体合作行为受到群体成员价值取向的影响,合作型成员会产生更多的群体合作行为;（2）群体的合作行为也受到合作者对策策略的影响,对应策略将导致最多的群体合作行为;（3）两者的交互作用对群体的合作行为具有影响,但不显著。     

动态两难对策中信息反馈方式对合作行为的影响

本研究着重探讨了多人动态对策情景中信息反馈方式和群体认同度对合作行为变化的影响。结果表明,集体反馈比个人反馈更能促进被试的合作行为,而群体认同度对合作行为的影响不显著;在集体反馈条件下,合作行为在各轮次问的随机波动较大,但在三个决策阶段问较为稳定;个人反馈条件下,合作行为在各轮次问的随机波动较小,但在三阶段问呈现出不对称的“U”型变化趋势。研究认为,建立在反馈信息基础上的决策学习使合作行为的动态变化具有策略性和适应性。     

A Description–Experience Gap in Social Interactions: Information about Interdependence and Its Effects on Cooperation

In social interactions, decision makers are often unaware of their interdependence with others, precluding the realization of shared long‐term benefits. In an experiment, pairs of participants played an Iterated Prisoner's Dilemma under various conditions involving differing levels of interdependence information. Each pair was assigned to one of four conditions: “No‐Info” players saw their own actions and outcomes, but were not told that they interacted with another person; “Min‐Info” players knew they interacted with another person but still without seeing the other's actions or outcomes; “Mid‐Info” players discovered the other's actions and outcomes as they were revealed over time; and “Max‐Info” players were also shown a complete payoff matrix mapping actions to outcomes from the outset and throughout the game. With higher levels of interdependence information, we found increased individual cooperation and mutual cooperation, driven by increased reciprocating cooperation (in response to a counterpart's cooperation). Furthermore, joint performance and satisfaction were higher for pairs with more information. We discuss how awareness of interdependence may encourage cooperative behavior in real‐world interactions. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Race for Power in Public Good Games with Unequal,Unstable Punishment Power

Decentralized punishment can maintain contributions to a public good at a high level. This positive effect holds even for situations involving inequality in punishment power, meaning that the relative costs for punishment differ between persons. We extend this line of research by examining the additional influence of instability of and thus potential competition for punishment power in public good experiments. As in previous research, inequality is operationalized by assigning the role of a ‘strong player’ to one group member, who can punish others at a reduced cost compared to other players. Instability is operationalized by the fact that the role assignment can change across rounds and is contingent on behavior in previous rounds. Three experiments show that under unequal, unstable (punishment‐) power, individuals behave more competitively and engage in a race for power resulting in detrimental effects for the group. Specifically, we find that (i) unstable power goes along with a disproportionate use of punishment; (ii) not inequality by itself but rather the combination of instability and inequality causes this effect; and (iii) this excessive use of punishment is found not only when the role of the strong player is assigned to individuals who previously behaved rather selfishly but also when prosocial behavior leads to the top, speaking for a generalizability of our findings. Implications for organizational settings are discussed. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Experimental Studies in Ocular Behavior: II. Ocular Inadequacies in Epileptic Patients

The Allport-Vernon-Lindzey Study of Values and the Brown Modification of the Thouless Test of Religious Orthodoxy were administered to 120 male and female students in introductory psychology. Measures of anxiety, self-esteem, authoritarianism, and humanitarianism were also administered to the Ss in an effort to determine whether the two measures of religiosity would yield different personality and attitude profiles of the “religious” individual. A significant positive correlation was found between authoritarianism and the Thouless Test and between humanitarianism and the Study of Values religious measure. All other correlations involving the two measures of religiosity were found to be nonsignificant. These findings lend support to the notion that using two divergent measures of religiosity does result in the formation of different profiles of the “religious” individual.     

Lead Us (Not) into Temptation: Testing the Motivational Mechanisms Linking Honesty–Humility to Cooperation

Over the past decades, there has been considerable interest in individual differences in cooperative behaviour and how these can be explained. Whereas the Honesty–Humility dimension from the HEXACO model of personality has been identified as a consistent predictor of cooperation, the underlying motivational mechanisms of this association have remained unclear—especially given the confound between the temptation to exploit others and the fear of being exploited as motivational drivers of defection in social dilemmas. In a reanalysis and a new experiment, we tease apart these mechanisms by manipulating the rank order of pay‐offs in a symmetric two‐person game paradigm, essentially implementing the classic prisoner's dilemma, stag hunt, and chicken games. Results revealed that Honesty–Humility predicted cooperation specifically in the games in which temptation was a potential motivator of defection, whereas it did not account for cooperation in those games in which only fear implied defection. Our findings thereby shed light on the underlying motivational mechanisms of the Honesty–Humility–cooperation link and, more generally, demonstrate how economic games can be used to disentangle such mechanisms. Copyright © 2018 European Association of Personality Psychology     

Counterproductive Behaviors and Psychological Well-being: The Moderating Effect of Task Interdependence

Purpose  The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between counterproductive behaviors (CPBs) and psychological well-being in a teamwork setting. Moreover, we examined the moderating effect of task interdependence. CPBs are considered in light of four dimensions, namely parasitism, interpersonal aggression, boastfulness, and misuse of resources. Design/Methodology/Approach  Data were collected from a sample of 249 individuals working in a Canadian prison. The study was based on two measurement times. Findings  The results reveal that the four dimensions of CPBs are negatively related to psychological well-being and that relationships involving interpersonal aggression and boastfulness are moderated by task interdependence. Implications  This study highlights the importance for managers to identify the presence of CPBs in their team as soon as possible so as to be able to remedy them before they affect team members’ psychological well-being. Moreover, interpersonal aggression and boastfulness may be particularly detrimental in a context of high interdependence. Originality/Value  This study further extends the nomological network of CPBs. Indeed, the results indicate that the presence of CPBs may harm employees’ mental health. Furthermore, this study shows that a contextual characteristic (i.e., task interdependence) may amplify the detrimental effect of some CPBs.

不对称社会困境中社会价值取向对合作的影响

以往研究表明, 社会价值取向对社会困境中合作行为变异的解释量不高。本研究指出, 初始资源配置导致个体处于某种优劣势位置上, 从而影响社会价值取向不同的个体的合作行为。研究设置了两人互动和多人互动两种情境, 通过变化被试所拥有的初始资源的相对价值或相对数量来操作优势差异, 检验亲社会者和亲自我者在社会困境中的心理与行为差异。研究结果表明, 在初始资源处于相对劣势位置时, 亲社会者比亲自我者表现出更高的合作水平。