Right frontal EEG asymmetry and behavioral inhibition in infants of depressed mothers

Recent studies have shown associations between maternal psychopathology and inhibited behaviors in infants. Moreover, physiological factors have been identified as affecting the continuity of behavioral inhibition across childhood. The purpose of the present study was to examine electroencephalogram (EEG) activity and inhibited behavior in 12-month-old infants of depressed versus non-depressed and mothers. Repeated measures MANOVAs indicated that the infants of mothers with stable psychopathology had greater relative right frontal EEG asymmetry, a pattern that typically accompanies greater negative affect and greater withdrawal behaviors. Infants of affectively ill mothers also showed more proximal behaviors toward a stranger and a novel toy than infants of well mothers, but fewer non-proximal behaviors toward their mothers. These results are discussed within a framework of behavioral inhibition for infants exposed to early psychopathologies in their mothers.     

Overgeneral autobiographical memory in children of depressed mothers

The goal of this study was to examine overgeneral autobiographical memory in a population at-risk for depression (i.e., children of depressed mothers). We predicted that children of depressed mothers would display less-specific memories than children of non-depressed mothers and that these results would be observed among children with no prior history of depression themselves. Participants in this study were children (age 8–14; 50% girls, 83% Caucasian) of mothers with (n = 103) or without (n = 120) a history of major depressive disorder during the child's life. Mothers' and children's diagnoses were confirmed with a diagnostic interview, and children completed the Autobiographical Memory Test and a measure of depressive symptoms. We found that children of depressed mothers, compared to children of non-depressed mothers, recalled less-specific memories in response to negative cue words but not positive cue words. Importantly, these results were maintained even when we statistically controlled for the influence of children's current depressive symptom levels and excluded children with currently depressed mothers. These results suggest that overgeneral autobiographical memory for negative events may serve as a marker of depression risk among high-risk children with no prior depression history.     

Discrimination of facial expression by 5-month-old infants of nondepressed and clinically depressed mothers

Five-month-old infants of nondepressed and clinically depressed mothers were habituated to either a face with a neutral expression or the same face with a smile. Infants of nondepressed mothers subsequently discriminated between neutral and smiling facial expressions, whereas infants of clinically depressed mothers failed to make the same discrimination.     

Affective facial expression in sub-clinically depressed and non-depressed mothers during contingent and non-contingent face-to-face interactions with their infants

BackgroundDepression in the postpartum period involves feelings of sadness, anxiety and irritability, and attenuated feelings of pleasure and comfort with the infant. Even mild- to- moderate symptoms of depression seem to have an impact on caregivers affective availability and contingent responsiveness. The aim of the present study was to investigate non-depressed and sub-clinically depressed mothers interest and affective expression during contingent and non-contingent face-to-face interaction with their infant.MethodsThe study utilized a double video (DV) set-up. The mother and the infant were presented with live real-time video sequences, which allowed for mutually responsive interaction between the mother and the infant (Live contingent sequences), or replay sequences where the interaction was set out of phase (Replay non-contingent sequences). The DV set-up consisted of five sequences: Live1-Replay1-Live2-Replay2-Live3. Based on their scores on the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS), the mothers were divided into a non-depressed and a sub-clinically depressed group (EPDS score ≥ 6).ResultsA three-way split-plot ANOVA showed that the sub-clinically depressed mothers displayed the same amount of positive and negative facial affect independent of the quality of the interaction with the infants. The non-depressed mothers displayed more positive facial affect during the non-contingent than the contingent interaction sequences, while there was no such effect for negative facial affect.ConclusionsThe results indicate that sub-clinically level depressive symptoms influence the mothers’ affective facial expression during early face-to-face interaction with their infants. One of the clinical implications is to consider even sub-clinical depressive symptoms as a risk factor for mother-infant relationship disturbances.     

Attachment representations in mothers of preterm infants

The aim of the study was to assess attachment representations in mothers of preterm infants using the Working Model of Child Interview (WMCI) at the 12 months of the infant's corrected age. In addition, the relation between WMCI representation categories and the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale score at 6 months of the infant's corrected age was studied. There were 38 mothers of preterm infants (<1500 g or <32 gestational weeks) and 45 mothers of full-term infants. The results showed no differences between the study groups in the distribution of the three main representation categories (balanced, disengaged and distorted). However, there were qualitative differences in representations between the groups. Furthermore, maternal depression symptoms were associated with distorted representation category. We suggest that despite the qualitative differences in the mothers’ representations, mothers of preterm infants are as likely to form balanced attachments with their infants as mothers of full-term infants.     

Well-being of mothers of children with mental retardation: An evaluation of the Double ABCX model in a cross-cultural context

The present study was designed to compare the psychological well-being of mothers of children with mental retardation in the USA and Korea. The Double ABCX model of stress proposed by McCubbin and Patterson (1983) was evaluated for the two national groups. Thirty-eight American and 40 Korean mothers participated in the home-visit interview. The path models in the present study partially supported the ABCX model, but different path models for the two national groups provided important explanations for the well-being of mothers from the two nations. The cause of stress for the American mothers was specific to the individual variables. For Korean mothers, cultural values that carry social influence were more strongly associated with their attitudes towards the child and their experience of stress.     

Separation anxiety in first-time mothers: infant behavioral reactivity and maternal parenting self-efficacy as contributors

This short-term longitudinal study examined the contribution of infant behavioral reactivity and maternal parenting self-efficacy to first-time mothers’ (total n = 32) separation anxiety. Infants’ behavioral reactivity indexed by gaze and facial affect were observed in the conditions of routine play and maternal still face at 3 months. Mothers reported their self-perceived parenting efficacy at 3 months and separation anxiety at 6 months. Results revealed that infants’ frequent gazing at their mother, greater negative affect, and less positive affect observed during the still face, but not during the routine play, contributed to heightened maternal separation anxiety. In addition to a direct link between low maternal parenting self-efficacy and high maternal separation anxiety, maternal parenting self-efficacy buffered against the impact of infant negative reactivity on maternal separation anxiety. The role of infant reactivity and maternal self-efficacy in parenting was discussed.     

A pilot study of a family‐focused intervention for children and families affected by maternal depression

A non‐experimental pilot study examined child, mother and family outcomes of a 10‐session multi‐family group intervention designed to reduce risk and promote resilience for mothers with depression and their families. Positive changes following the Keeping Families Strong intervention included mother‐reported decreases in child behaviour and emotional problems, improvements in the quality of family interactions and routines and improvements in their own well‐being and support from others. Children (9–16 years) reported decreased internalizing symptoms, improved coping, increased maternal warmth and acceptance and decreased stressful family events. Attendance and mother‐reported satisfaction were high, indicating the perceived value of the intervention.     

Relations between maternal power-assertive parenting and adjustment in Chinese children: A longitudinal study

This 1-year longitudinal study examined relations between maternal power-assertive parenting and children's social, academic and psychological adjustment in China. Participants were 316 elementary school children (mean age = 11 years, 153 boys). Maternal power-assertive parenting was assessed using children's self-reports. Data on children's social and school adjustment were obtained from peer evaluations and teacher ratings. In addition, children completed measures of loneliness and depression. Cross-lagged analyses indicated that whereas maternal power-assertive parenting was only related to later academic adjustment, children's adjustment in socioemotional and academic domains contributed to the prediction of later maternal power-assertive parenting. The results were discussed in the Chinese context.     

Issues in the treatment of depressed children

Basic research into the cognitive, behavioral, familial, and physiological disturbances associated with depressive disorders during childhood is reviewed. Implications for the development of a treatment program are discussed and a comprehensive treatment model is proposed. The proposed model includes intervention strategies for the child, parents, family, and school. The child component consists of intervention strategies for the affective, cognitive, behavioral, and physiological disturbances that are evident from the existing research. The parent training component is designed to address disturbances in parenting due to cognitive disturbances and skills deficits. The family therapy component emphasizes changing interaction patterns that communicate schema-consistent maladaptive interactions. A school consultation component is proposed in which school personnel support the skills training through prompting use of the skills and reinforcement of the use of the coping skills.     

Self-reported mental health problems and performance in mathematics and reading in children across Europe

ABSTRACT

The study examines the associations of specific self-reported internalizing and externalizing problems and performance in mathematics and reading in school-aged children across Europe. Data were drawn from 5,842 children between 6 and 13 years of age participating in the School Children Mental Health in Europe study and a large cross-sectional survey in France. Self-reported child mental health was assessed using the Dominic Interactive, academic performance was reported by teachers. Across Europe, controlling for key sociodemographic factors associated with achievement including maternal education, performance in mathematics was more often associated with the presence of externalizing and internalizing problems as compared to performance in reading. In addition, the findings point to significant sex differences in the associations of internalizing problems and academic achievement. Considering the impact of early academic difficulties in terms of later internalizing and externalizing problems and academic attainment, school-based interventions interrupting the cycle as early as possible are warranted.     

Mentalization-based therapy with maltreated children living in shelters in southern Brazil: A single case study

This study describes the mentalization-based child therapy of a boy who suffered from early abuse and neglect, who was living in a shelter in southern Brazil. This single case study aimed at assessing whether this kind of psychotherapy contributes to reducing depressive symptoms and developing a greater capacity for reflection on the mental states of self and other, as part of developing a more coherent sense of self. Structured assessments were conducted before therapy and after six months of treatment, and the audio-recorded treatment sessions were analyzed using content analysis, in order to identify key themes in the treatment itself. The results suggested a significant improvement in depressive symptoms and some changes in mentalization with the beginnings of a movement toward a more cohesive and integrated self. We argue that mentalization-based child therapy could be a promising therapeutic approach for children who have experienced severe disruptions of emotional bonds, due to the way it focuses on the capacity to regulate affect and develop a more coherent sense of self.     

Profiles of perceived resources among low-income,rural mothers: Prospective associations with maternal and child outcomes

Low-income, rural families face significant mental health risks. However, the understanding of resources associated with mental health risks is limited. The present study investigated the associations between perceived resources of low-income, rural mothers, and longitudinal maternal and child outcomes. This study utilized longitudinal data from the Family Life Project (N = 1203), from US rural areas with high poverty rates. Mothers reported their resources at 6-month postpartum, and their levels of depression, anxiety, and role overload were assessed at 2-year postpartum. Mothers reported their children's behavioral problems at 3 years old. Using a person-centered approach, we identified four maternal profiles: lower resources (7.1%); higher intra-family support (11.1%); higher inter-family support (20.8%); and higher resources (60.9%). In general, the higher resource profile was associated with lower mental health concerns of mothers and lower levels of behavior problems of children. Mothers in the higher intra-family support profile had disproportionately higher role overload. Children of mothers in the higher inter-family support profile showed disproportionately higher behavioral problems. Maternal partner status and education were significant predictors of resource profiles. Findings support the heterogeneity in perceived resources among low-income, rural families and different risk levels. Identifying these subgroups has significant implications for policy and interventions aimed toward this vulnerable population.     

Adjustment of children of depressed mothers: a 10-month follow-up.

There is considerable concern about the adjustment of children of depressed mothers. Earlier we studied the specificity of these difficulties to maternal depression. Child adjustment difficulties were evident in 7- to 13-year-old children of both depressed and nondepressed psychiatric patient mothers but not in the children of community mothers or nondepressed medical patient mothers (Lee & Gotlib, 1989a). This report describes a 10-month follow-up of 44 of these subjects. Despite the alleviation of maternal depressive symptomatology, children in the 2 psychiatric groups continued to manifest adjustment difficulties that were evident to both clinicians and mothers. These findings suggest that the adjustment difficulties found in the children of psychologically distressed mothers do not abate within the 1st year after the mothers' recovery.     

The protective role of maternal posttraumatic growth and cognitive trauma processing among Palestinian mothers and infants

War survivors use multiple cognitive and emotional processes to protect their mental health from the negative impacts of trauma. Because mothers and infants may be especially vulnerable to trauma in conditions of war, it is urgent to determine which cognitive and emotional processes are effective for preventing negative trauma impacts.” This study examined whether mothers’ high posttraumatic growth (PTG) and positive posttraumatic cognitions (PTC) protected (a) their own mental health and (b) their infants’ stress regulation and sensorimotor and language development from the effects of war trauma. The participants were 511 Palestinian mothers and their infants living in the Gaza strip. The mothers were interviewed in their second trimester of pregnancy (T1) as well as when the infant was four months (T2) and twelve months (T3). Mothers reported posttraumatic growth (PTG; Tedeschi & Calhoun, 1996) at T1 and posttraumatic cognitions (PTCI; Foa et al., 1999) at T2. They also reported their exposure to traumatic war events both at T1 and T3 and described their mental health conditions (e.g., PTSD and/or depressive and dissociation symptoms) at T3. The Infant Behaviour Questionnaire (IBQ) was used to measure infants’ stress regulation at T2 and sensorimotor and language development at T3. The results, based on regression analyses with interaction terms between trauma and PTG, showed that high levels of traumatic war events were not associated with high levels of PTSD, depressive, or dissociation symptoms among mothers showing high levels of PTG. This suggests that PTG may protect maternal mental health from the effects of trauma. In turn, positive maternal PTCs appeared to protect the infants’ stress regulation from the effects of war trauma. The study concludes by discussing ways to develop and implement preventive interventions for mother-infant dyads in war conditions.     

Parental depression,parenting behaviours,and behaviour problems in young children

In the past, research has demonstrated that parental depression and parenting practices are related. More recently, there has been an increase in research examining child outcomes as they are related to maternal and paternal psychopathology. To continue with this line of research, this study examined the relationships among mothers' and fathers' symptoms of depression, characteristics of their parenting practices, and their ratings of their young children's internalizing and externalizing behaviour problems. The results of this study demonstrated that these variables are related significantly. Further, the results of this study suggested that mothers' parenting, particularly their limit setting with their young children, is an important predictor of their ratings of their young children's externalizing behaviour problems in the context of their own symptoms of depression. A different pattern of relationships may be present for fathers, as both their symptoms of depression and their parenting characteristics predicted their ratings of their young children's externalizing behaviour problems. Such findings were not supported for young children's internalizing behaviour problems. These findings suggested that interventions should have different targets for mothers and fathers. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Facial expressions and vagal tone of infants of depressed and non-depressed mothers

Mothers classified as ‘depressed’, ‘non-depressed’ or ‘low scoring’ on the Beck Depression Inventory and their 3-month-old infants were videotaped during 3-minute face-to-face play interactions. Infants' facial expressions were coded using the AFFEX facial expression coding system and their EKG was recorded during the interactions to assess the relationship between cardiac measures and facial expressivity. Infants of both ‘depressed’ and ‘low scoring’ mothers showed significantly more sad and anger expressions and fewer interest expressions than infants of nondepressed mothers. Cardiac vagal tone, (quantified from the amplitude of respiratory sinus arrhythmia) was correlated with infants' joy and interest expressions and with self-comfort behaviours in the non-depressed and low scoring groups, but not in the depressed group. The results suggest that matermal depression affects infants' affective state and appearance as well as their biobehavioural emotional regulation systems.