Constructing the “Good Mother”: The Experience of Mothering Ideologies by Work Status

The purpose of this study was to explore how mothers construct their worker–parent identity within a cultural context of competing mothering ideologies. We used narrative data from interviews with 95 married mothers with at least 1 child under the age of 5 to compare the construction of intensive mothering expectations by middle-class full-time employed mothers, part-time employed mothers, and at-home mothers. Although previous research has shown that mothers alter work status to live up to intensive mothering expectations, our results show that mothers also alter their construction of intensive mothering expectations to reconcile these demands with their work status choices. The results also suggest that mothers with different employment decisions differ in their construction of Y. Elvin-Nowak and H. Thomsson's (2001) 3 discursive positions—accessibility, happy mother/happy child, and separation of work and home.     

Cognitive Acrobatics in the Construction of Worker–mother Identity

This study uses dialectical theory to explore the interaction of worker identity (perceived financial need and job/career identity) and intensive mothering expectations in mothers’ identity construction. This study is based on extensive interviews with 98 at-home, part-time employed and full-time employed mothers of one or more pre-school children from the Midwestern United States. The narrative analysis reveals that mothers embrace intensive mothering expectations. Because of these cultural expectations, mothers must modify either societal mothering expectations or worker expectations in order to construct an integrated worker–mother identity. We found that while at-home mothers can embrace intensive mothering expectations, employed mothers engage in cognitive acrobatics to manage the tension between employment and the dominant mothering ideology. Deirdre D. Johnston is Professor of Communication and Debra H. Swanson is Professor of Sociology at Hope College. This research was funded by grants from Hope College Frost Center for Social Science Research and the Ruth M. Peale faculty development fund.     

“Am iz kwiin” (I’m his queen): Combining interpretative phenomenological analysis with a feminist approach to work with gems in a resource-constrained setting

ABSTRACT

This article focuses on working with gems using a feminist approach to interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) in a resource-constrained setting. The research explores the experiences of maternal disclosure of HIV to children of HIV positive mothers in Kingston, Jamaica. A feminist approach helps recognise power imbalances within research relationships and the women’s lived experiences. We present three “gems” which illuminate women’s lived experiences and explore how popularised representations of women’s sexuality and mothering influence disclosure discourses. We use emotion work as a conceptual resource to structure the women’s narratives and challenge existing policy discourses, which arguably represent disclosure within a binary, rationalist, decision-making framework. This article adds to global literature on maternal HIV disclosure and problematises policy discourses by bringing into relief the emotion work women engage in when deciding if and how to communicate their HIV status to their children. It adds to the body of research using IPA, particularly in resource-constrained settings where IPA has thus far had little application.     

emotionally layered accounts: homeschoolers' justifications for maternal deviance

Drawing on six years of field research with homeschooling mothers, I show four ways they were accused of maternal deviance for keeping their children out of conventional schools, and I uncover the four justifications they used in response. On the surface, critics objected to the behavior of homeschooling; however, their specific accusations—and the accounts they engendered—revealed that it was mothers' (alleged) emotions that were at issue. I conclude by discussing how attention to emotions enhances our theoretical understanding of accounts, as well as how these data begin to map out the emotional complexities in the social construction of good mothering.     

Finding Female Fulfillment: Intersecting Role-Based and Morality-Based Identities of Motherhood, Feminism, and Generativity as Predictors of Women’s Self Satisfaction and Life Satisfaction

Focused on 113 U.S. mothers of college-aged daughters, we extend the existent role-based identity literature to address role- and morality-based identities and their ties to women’s fulfillment. Specifically, women’s identities as mothers, feminists, and generative individuals were assessed for their associations with each other, as well as their unique and combined associations with women’s self satisfaction and life satisfaction. Across the results, generativity yielded the greatest significance. Women with higher generativity identity report having higher self satisfaction and life satisfaction; women who were highly committed to mothering have stronger associations between generativity and life satisfaction. Women with strong generativity identities also tend to identify themselves as feminists. Feminist and mothering identity were not related to one another nor directly tied to satisfaction with one’s self nor life. Implications are discussed regarding continued assessment of role- and morality-based identity intersections as well as to the functions and limitations of the three identities and their assessment featured herein.     

Maternal perceptions of the infant: Relationship to maternal self‐efficacy during the first six weeks' postpartum

Mothers' perceptions of their infants and their own levels of self‐efficacy contribute to developing maternal‐infant attunement. The purpose of this investigation was to examine the associations between maternal perceptions of their own infants relative to other infants and maternal self‐efficacy in a group of ethnically diverse, low‐income, first‐time mothers during the first six weeks postpartum. By employing a structural equation model approach, we explored relationships between the predictor (maternal neonatal perceptions) and dependent variable (maternal self‐efficacy). Changes in maternal perceptions of their own infants significantly contributed to self‐reported levels of self‐efficacy while controlling for concurrent self‐esteem. Maternal perceptions of her infant as less difficult than the average infant at six weeks postpartum predicted increased levels of maternal self‐reported self‐efficacy. The present study supports further exploration of the first six weeks postpartum as a sensitive period for targeting intervention and support, particularly for mothers and infants at highest risk.     

Provider,Caretaker, Nurturer,Hero: Perceptions of Parenting Changes among Women Who Experienced Intimate Partner Violence

In this study, we examined changes in mothers’ reports of discipline, nurturing, and parenting satisfaction, along with their perceptions of how intimate partner violence (IPV) affected their role as a mother. Data were gathered from 85 women (86% identified as non-Hispanic White; mean age?=?31.7 years; average number of children?=?2.5) across three data waves. We used a convergent parallel mixed method design to examine women’s parenting experiences. Two standardized scales assessed parenting discipline, nurturance, and satisfaction. Five additional items assessed perceptions of how IPV influenced parenting. Women responded to open-ended questions about perceptions of their mothering role and how IPV influenced this role over time. We found significant changes in discipline scores and women’s ability to have their desired relationship with their children. Nurturing and parenting satisfaction scores did not significantly change over time. Four themes emerged for women’s role as mothers: provider and nurturer, teacher and discipliner, challenges, and importance of the mother role. Seven themes emerged on how IPV influenced mothering: ability to be present, trouble with discipline, overcompensation and overprotective, learned behavior, no impact, finding strength, and self-doubt. These findings contribute to the growing scholarship assessing women’s perceptions of their mothering roles and parenting in the context of IPV. Future research should examine the impact and nuances of parental interference in various contexts and over time.

     

UNDERSTANDING THE CONNECTION BETWEEN ATTACHMENT TRAUMA AND MATERNAL SELF‐EFFICACY IN DEPRESSED MOTHERS

Maternal self‐efficacy predicts sensitive and responsive caregiving. Low maternal self‐efficacy is associated with a higher incidence of postpartum depression. Maternal self‐efficacy and postpartum depression can both be buffered by social support. Maternal self‐efficacy and postpartum depression have both been linked independently, albeit in separate studies, to the experience of violent trauma, childhood maltreatment, and spousal abuse. This study proposed a model in which postpartum depression mediates the relation between attachment trauma and maternal self‐efficacy, with emotional support as a moderator. Participants were 278 first‐time mothers of infants under 14 months. Cross‐sectional data were collected online. Mothers completed questionnaires on attachment trauma, maternal self‐efficacy, postpartum depression, and emotional support. A moderated mediation model was tested in a structural equation modeling framework using Mplus’ estimate of indirect effects. Postpartum depression fully mediated the relation between trauma and maternal self‐efficacy. Emotional support moderated only the pathway between postpartum depression and maternal self‐efficacy. Attachment trauma's implications for maternal self‐efficacy should be understood in the context of overall mental health. Mothers at the greatest risk for low maternal self‐efficacy related to attachment trauma also are those suffering from postpartum depression. Emotional support buffered mothers from postpartum depression, though, which has implications for intervention and future research.     

Perceived quality of maternal care in childhood and structure and function of mothers' brain

Animal studies indicate that early maternal care has long‐term effects on brain areas related to social attachment and parenting, whereas neglectful mothering is linked with heightened stress reactivity in the hippocampus across the lifespan. The present study explores the possibility, using magnetic resonance imaging, that perceived quality of maternal care in childhood is associated with brain structure and functional responses to salient infant stimuli among human mothers in the first postpartum month. Mothers who reported higher maternal care in childhood showed larger grey matter volumes in the superior and middle frontal gyri, orbital gyrus, superior temporal gyrus and fusiform gyrus. In response to infant cries, these mothers exhibited higher activations in the middle frontal gyrus, superior temporal gyrus and fusiform gyrus, whereas mothers reporting lower maternal care showed increased hippocampal activations. These findings suggest that maternal care in childhood may be associated with anatomy and functions in brain regions implicated in appropriate responsivity to infant stimuli in human mothers.     

The influence of cultural expectations on mother-child relationships in Japan

This study examines cultural pressures on mothering and child development in Japan and the historical background of the patriarchical family system. Particularly during the period of rapid economic growth after World War II, gender based division of labor become more stark as women were expected only to be good wives and mothers. However, many mothers face difficulties in motherhood, feeling restricted in their role, incompetent as parents, and in search of an identity aside from being mothers. Research data related high levels of maternal stress created by such difficulties to children having less secure attachments. The influence of maternal stress was buffered among mothers who reported high levels of marital harmony, and children with such mothers were just as secure as those with mothers who had low levels of stress. The function of emotionality in families is discussed in order to discern the role of parenting stress. Cultural attitudes towards mothers are questioned and criticized, in reference to research studies on maternal psychological functioning and child development.     

Bad Mothers and Monstrous Sons: Autistic Adults,Lifelong Dependency,and Sensationalized Narratives of Care

Sensationalized representations of autistic families in film and other media frequently feature violent encounters between mothers and sons. This essay analyzes two media stories and three films that suggest how limited—and therefore misleading—popular representations of the autism family are. Except for one of the films, these representations blame the problem of adult autistic dependency on either monstrous autism or bad mothering. Doing so elides collective social responsibility for autism care and denies the reality that autistic adults continue to have complex dependency needs that families cannot always meet. Narratives that sensationalize youth and adults with autism or scapegoat their maternal caregivers also diminish opportunities for social inclusion and for autistic people to live fully and dependently.     

The Role of Romantic Involvement and Social Support in Italian Adolescent Mothers’ Live

This study examined the experience of mothering in adolescence in the context of romantic involvement and social support. 30 adolescent mothers completed measures of adolescent self-development and motherhood, romantic relationship experience, availability of and satisfaction with social support, and parenting stress. Findings suggest that young mothers benefit greatly from the support of a partner, as evidenced by a more functional understanding of motherhood and the maternal role, greater satisfaction with social support, and lower levels of psychological distress. Education on social support should be made available to young mothers to address stress associated with adolescent parenting.     

Individual Resiliency Factors from a Genetic Perspective: Results from a Twin Study

This article is part of the Twin Mother's Study, a study that examines influences on maternal adjustment. A number of studies have investigated the importance of genetic factors for mental health, but few of these examine how genes and the environment influence resiliency/salutogenic factors. This article investigates the relative importance of genetic and environmental influences on resiliency/salutogenic factors. This study includes 326 twin pairs (150 monozygotic and 176 dizygotic) who are mothers, who are living with their spouse, and who are part of the Swedish twin register. Using self‐report structured questionnaires, we assessed salutogenic factors, depression, and quality of life; however, we analyzed the questionnaires completed by the mothers. Statistical analyses were conducted using structural equation modeling. We conclude that nonshared environmental components were of principal importance in individual resiliency/salutogenic factors in a genetically informative design, but we also noted that genetic influences were important. The shared environment had mainly no effect.     

A Person‐oriented Approach to Identifying Parenting Styles in Mothers of Early School‐age Children

A substantial body of work has been dedicated to understanding the behaviours that characterize mothers' interactions with their children. Most research on parenting has used a variable‐oriented approach, limiting analysis to one or a few parenting behaviours and failing to identify higher‐order interactions or patterns among variables. Thus, little is known about how different behaviours co‐occur in individual mothers to form styles of parenting. In this study, a person‐oriented approach was used to develop a typology of maternal parenting styles based on a broad range of observed and self‐reported parenting behaviours. The study sample consisted of 408 socio‐demographically diverse mother–child pairs. Cluster analysis revealed six parenting groups—(1) balanced parenting; (2) warm/involved parenting; (3) task‐focused parenting; (4) detached/inconsistent parenting; (5) intrusive parenting; and (6) self‐critical parenting—two of which (task‐focused and self‐critical parenting) have not been previously represented in the parenting literature. The maternal parenting typology developed through this study provides useful information on the profiles of parenting behaviour that are associated with the highest levels of demographic and psychological risk in mothers who exhibit these profiles. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Infants’ emotional states influence maternal behaviors during holding

Previous studies have mainly examined how maternal behaviors influence infants during holding. However it is unclear how infants influence maternal holding. This current study investigated how infants’ emotional states influence maternal holding behaviors, and whether maternal holding behaviors are also influenced by the mothers’ parenting stress. We manipulated infants’ emotional states and videotaped mothers’ holding behaviors. The mothers also completed a questionnaire about their parental stress. Results showed that mothers varied their holding behaviors depending on their infants’ emotional states. When infants were comfortable, mothers rocked them horizontally and quietly. When infants were uncomfortable, mothers rocked them vertically at a high frequency. Furthermore, some types of parenting stress were related to several types of maternal behaviors in the context of holding. These findings suggest that maternal holding behaviors are influenced by both the infants’ emotional states and the mothers’ parenting stress.     

Women's Career Plans and Maternal Employment

Maternal employment, perceived maternal satisfaction and goodness of mothering, and sex role conceptions were studied as they relate to future life plans of college senior women. Twenty-five women in a working mother group and 26 in a nonworking mother group were administered the Strong Vocational Interest Blank for Women, the Sex-Role Stereotype Questionnaire, the Inventory of Feminine Values, the Maternal Satisfaction and Maternal Goodness scales, and the Life Plan Questionnaire. Daughters of working mothers scored higher on career orientation ( p <.01, Life Plan Questionnaire) than did daughters of nonworking mothers. High perceived maternal satisfaction and maternal goodness correlated with low career orientation for the nonworking sample (the averaged r across variable pairs =.48). For the working sample, perceived maternal dissatisfaction with feminine role values correlated significantly with higher career orientation (r =.42), while the other satisfaction measure showed no relation to career orientation. Daughters of working mothers displayed broader sex role conceptualizations (p <0.01).     

Insight into the Parenthood Paradox: Mental Health Outcomes of Intensive Mothering

Though people often report wanting to have children because they think it will make them happier, much research suggests that parenting is associated with decreased well-being. Other studies have found that parenting is related to increased life satisfaction. The goal of this study was to provide insight into this paradox by investigating the relationship between a specific way of parenting, intensive parenting, and maternal mental health. An online survey was completed by 181 mothers with children ages 5 and under. Intensive mothering beliefs correlated with several negative mental health outcomes. Controlling for perceived family social support, the belief that women are the essential parent was related to lower life satisfaction and believing that parenting is challenging was related to greater depression and stress. The results of this study suggest that aspects of intensive mothering beliefs are detrimental to women’s mental health. It may not be parenting per se, but specific and particularly intensive ways of parenting, that relate to negative mental health outcomes.     

Infant–mother social referencing interactions: Description and antecedents in maternal sensitivity and infant irritability

The purpose of the study was to describe naturally occurring infant and maternal behaviours in terms of social referencing in a stranger wariness situation, and to explore antecedents to such behaviouts in early maternal sensitivity and infant irritability. One hundred and ten 10-months-old infants and their mothers were videotaped. Infant social referencing behaviour was defined as puzzled looks directed at mother's face after the infant had discovered the stranger. Almost half of the infants looked with a puzzled expression at their mothers immediately after discovering the stranger, and a majority of the mothers sent a positive message back to the infants. Twenty per cent of the infants never looked at their mothers and 20% of the mothers did not respond when their infants turned to them. Infants whose mothers had responded positively to the referencing look showed positive responses to the stranger to a higher degree than infants who did not reference or those who were not responded to. Antecedents to infant and mother interactive behaviours were sought in maternal sensitivity (general sensitivity, physical contact, responsiveness, intrusiveness, response to distress, and effectiveness in comforting) and in infant irritability as observed when the infants were 4 months old. It was found that infants who did not reference their mothers for information at 10 months had experienced less sensitive mothering 6 months earlier and had also shown more irritability.