Personality correlates of Rorschach scoring determinants: hypotheses derived from structural analysis

A paradigm was presented whereby the meaning of some major Rorschach scoring determinants could be explicated in terms of a classification system based on Structural Analysis which indicates whether a response is intellectually or emotionally oriented and where it is located on a behavior-fantasy continuum. Implications of this analysis for resolving some interpretive issues and generating behavioral predictions were discussed.     

Interpersonal process in psychotherapy through the lens of the structural analysis of social behavior

As psychotherapy research focuses more and more on mechanisms of therapeutic change, increased attention has naturally been directed at therapy process. Over the past several decades, a variety of researchers have successfully applied Benjamin's 1974 Structural Analysis of Social Behavior (SASB) to the study of in-session psychotherapy events. This system for conceptualizing and analyzing interpersonal and intrapsychic processes has been shown to provide theoretically rigorous and empirically tractable instantiations of both helpful and hindering therapeutic exchanges. In this article the therapeutic alliance is conceived in terms of interpersonal processes as demarcated according to the SASB. This article also provides a review of SASB's wide-ranging applications to observing and studying the therapeutic relationship, therapy process, and client outcome. Also discussed are several data analytic and methodological considerations related to the SASB model and several new ancillary measures based on the SASB. Finally, the applied and clinical utility of the SASB system is discussed in light of a variety of contemporary empirical findings.     

Integrating psychopathology and personality disorders conceptualized by the MMPI-2-RF and the MCMI-III: a structural validity study

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2-Restructured Form (Ben-Porath & Tellegen, 2008 ) Restructured Clinical scales and Higher Order scales were linked to the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory-III (Millon, Millon, Davis, & Grossman, 2009 ) personality disorder scales and clinical syndrome scales in a Flemish/Dutch sample of psychiatric inpatients and outpatients, substance abuse patients, correctional inmates, and forensic psychiatric patients (N = 968). Structural validity of psychopathology and personality disorders as conceptualized by both instruments was investigated by means of principal component analysis. Results reveal a higher order structure with 4 dimensions (internalizing disorders, externalizing disorders, paranoid ideation/thought disturbance, and pathological introversion) that parallels earlier research on pathological personality dimensions as well as research linking pathological personality traits with mental disorders. Theoretical and clinical implications are considered.     

Personality organization defined by DMT and the Structural Interview

The psychoanalytic concept of Personality Organization (PO) may be operationalized by means of a Structural Interview as well as by means of psychological tests. The present study utilized the Structural Interview and a projective test called the Defence Mechanism Test (DMT) to operationalize the PO concept on a sample of 50 psychiatric inpatients. The reliability of the PO judgements were found to be acceptable for both the Structural Interview and the DMT. The validity, which was estimated as the correlation between the two methods, was also found to be substantial. The conclusion is that the concept of PO may be reliably operationalized for psychiatric patients and seems to have concurrent validity. Both the DMT and the Structural Interview may be used for differential diagnosis of PO.     

MMPI-A structural summary variables: prevalence and correlates in an adolescent inpatient psychiatric sample

This study examined the prevalence and correlates of Archer and Krishnamurthy's MMPI-A Structural Summary (SS) dimensions in a sample of 632 adolescent psychiatric inpatients through a series of correlational analyses. These analyses examined the relationship between factor dimensions and categorically defined dimension elevations and external criterion measures that included chart review data, therapist ratings, chart diagnoses, and cognitive test performance. The SS dimensions provided additional interpretive yield for some within-normal-limits profiles. An examination of the pattern of correlations revealed small to moderate relationships between all SS variables and external criterion measures.     

Using the structural analysis of social behavior (SASB) to differentiate young adults with borderline personality disorder features.

The present experiment investigated the ability of the Structural Analysis of Social Behavior (SASB) Intrex questionnaires to differentiate nonclinical samples of young adults with features of either borderline personality disorder (BPD), schizotypal personality disorder (SPD), or no personality disorder (no PD). A number of significant differences were demonstrated on the SASB Intrex questionnaires when comparisons were made between the BPD and no PD samples. These results are consistent with those reported in an earlier investigation of BPD using SASB in a clinical sample. Few differences were found between the SPD features sample and the other two samples. These results are not consistent with previous findings that have differentiated BPD and SPD in clinical samples. The results are discussed in terms of the possible implications for SASB to differentiate BPD, the use of nonclinical samples in personality disorder research, and dimensional models for conceptualizing personality disorders.     

Staff members' feelings toward psychiatric patients related to their own and the patient's self-image and gender

The relation between staff members' feelings toward a patient and their own and the patient's self-image in different gender combination groups was studied. Staff at 16 psychiatric treatment homes for patients with severe psychopathology reported their feelings toward their patients on a number of occasions. At the start of treatment, both staff members and patients rated their self-images using the Structural Analysis of Social Behavior (SASB). Male staff seemed less influenced by the patient, with their feelings relating mainly to aspects of their own self-image, while the feelings of the female staff were more related to the patient's self-image. The patient's diagnosis was less important for a staff member's feelings than that member's self-image. Generally, the relation between feelings and self-image was stronger for negative feelings. The results point to the importance of understanding more about the influence of staff members' self-structure on their negative feelings toward their patients and how this relates to both the staff member's and patient's gender.     

The relationship between personality, social functioning, and depression: a structural equation modeling analysis

The relationship between personality, social functioning, and depression remains unclear. The present study employs structural equation modeling to examine the mediating role of social functioning between harm avoidance (HA), self-directedness (SD), and depression. A sample of 902 individuals completed a self-report questionnaire consisting of the following scales: HA and SD subscales of the Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI), Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), and Social Adaptation Self-Evaluation Scale (SASS). Structural equation modeling via analysis of moment structure was used to estimate the fit of nine related models. Results indicated that social functioning is a mediator between harm avoidance or self-directness and depression. Self-directedness was also shown to have direct effects on depression. The results support the social reinforcement theory of depression and provide a theoretical account of how the variables are related based on correlation methods. Suggestions are offered for future experimental and longitudinal research.     

MMPI-A structural summary characteristics of male juvenile delinquents

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personal Inventory-Adolescent Structural Summary factor scores for 655 male juvenile delinquents were determined. These Structural Summary scores were compared to the Structural Summary scores in the normative sample of boys. Elevations on Factor 2 (Immaturity) were most characteristic, with half of delinquents' scores being elevated by at least one standard deviation. Discriminant analyses suggested that linear combinations of the Structural Summary scores are as capable of distinguishing between the normative and delinquent samples as were linear combinations of the clinical scales. Furthermore, use of Structural Summary scores provided incremental validity in distinguishing between the two samples, increasing positive predictive power by 20% to 40% as compared to use of only the clinical, content, and supplementary scales.     

Confirmatory factor analysis of the psychopathy checklist: screening version in offenders with axis I disorders

One hundred forty-nine inpatients within a maximum security psychiatric facility were assessed with the Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version (PCL:SV; S. D. Hart, D. N. Cox, & R. D. Hare, 1995). Within the total sample, 68% had a psychotic disorder and 30% met criteria for psychopathy. Using confirmatory factor analysis, the authors tested the 2-factor PCL:SV model of psychopathy and recent 3- and 4-factor models. Results indicated good fit for each model, with the 4-factor model showing best overall fit. Structural equation modeling was used to determine which psychopathy factors predicted 6-month follow-up of inpatient aggression. The 2-, 3-, and 4-factor models, respectively, accounted for 16%.27%. and 3l% of the variance in aggression.     

A confirmatory structural equations analysis of the job characteristics model

K. H. Roberts and W. Glick (1981, Journal of Applied Psychology, 66, 193–217) noted that research on J. R. Hackman and G. R. Oldham's (1976, Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 16, 250–279) job characteristics model has lacked consistency along a number of dimensions, including the nature and direction of the relationships hypothesized and the variables studied. Further, no variation on the model has been tested as a whole. This study was designed with two objectives: (1) to compare competing interpretations of the job characteristics model and (2) to test the job characteristics model more comprehensively than has been done in previous research. The question of which variation on the model is most useful has important implications, given the widespread use of job characteristics theory to guide productivity and satisfaction improvement efforts. Structural equations analysis can yield information to compare competing variations of the job characteristics model, and allow assessment of each interpretation's ability to describe data. Such analyses were performed on data collected by survey from 208 white-collar government employees. Findings indicate that a single-factor model, with that factor interpretable either as common method variance or generalized affect, explains these data at least as well as any traditional variation on job characteristics theory. The results are discussed in terms of further research on job characteristics, satisfaction, and performance.     

Introject and identity: structural-interpersonal analysis and psychological assessment of multiple personality disorder.

Revisions of the diagnostic nomenclature have contributed to renewed interest in multiple personality disorder (MPD). Identity and self-organization in MPD are assessed using a sophisticated structural-interpersonal measurement system, Structural Analysis of Social Behavior (SASB). Two important features of the SASB model applied to MPD are the assessments of interpersonal perceptions of childhood initiators of abuse and of the introject or self-organization of host and secondary personalities. SASB findings from a clinical series of six cases of MPD are analyzed to illustrate the use of this assessment technique. Host personalities and abused secondary personalities differed in their identity and self-organization. Host personalities evidenced internalization of abuse dynamics related to self-destructive trends. Secondary personalities, despite having experienced abuse, did not manifest such dynamics. Implications for understanding personality processes in MPD and for further research are discussed.     

Bayesian analysis of structural equation models with mixed exponential family and ordered categorical data

Structural equation models are very popular for studying relationships among observed and latent variables. However, the existing theory and computer packages are developed mainly under the assumption of normality, and hence cannot be satisfactorily applied to non‐normal and ordered categorical data that are common in behavioural, social and psychological research. In this paper, we develop a Bayesian approach to the analysis of structural equation models in which the manifest variables are ordered categorical and/or from an exponential family. In this framework, models with a mixture of binomial, ordered categorical and normal variables can be analysed. Bayesian estimates of the unknown parameters are obtained by a computational procedure that combines the Gibbs sampler and the Metropolis–Hastings algorithm. Some goodness‐of‐fit statistics are proposed to evaluate the fit of the posited model. The methodology is illustrated by results obtained from a simulation study and analysis of a real data set about non‐adherence of hypertension patients in a medical treatment scheme.     

Psychometric and structural analysis of the MMPI-2 Personality Psychopathology Five (PSY-5) facet subscales

The Personality Psychopathology Five (PSY-5) is a model of personality psychopathology assessed in adult populations with a set of Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) scales. The authors examine the reliability and validity of recently developed lower-order facet subscales for each of these five domains, with an emphasis on structural invariance, using both confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and exploratory factor analysis (EFA). MMPI-2 protocols completed by psychiatric patients (N = 693) served as the data source. The reliability and discriminant validity of the subscales were mostly inadequate. Results from the CFAs reveal universally poor statistical fits. Subsequent EFAs extracted alternate latent structures, which also demonstrate mostly inadequate reliability and validity. Overall, results suggest that the item pool that forms the MMPI-2 PSY-5 domain scales may not be able to sustain meaningful facet subscales.     

The Association Between Childhood Gender Atypical Behavior and Adult Psychiatric Symptoms is Moderated by Parenting Style

The association between childhood gender atypical behavior (GAB) i.e. behavior traditionally considered more typical for children of the opposite sex, and adult psychiatric symptoms as well as cold or over-controlling parenting style as a moderator of the association were studied in a sample of 1767 Finnish participants aged 33 to 43 years (M?=?37.5). Participants completed the Gender Identity/Gender Role Questionnaire, the Brief Symptom Inventory 18, and the Measure of Parenting Style. Regression analyses showed that women recalled more GAB than men did, and that participants who recalled more GAB reported significantly more psychiatric symptoms. Negative parenting style was associated with psychiatric symptoms. Structural equation modeling showed that parenting style significantly moderated the association between childhood GAB and adult psychiatric symptoms with positive parenting reducing the association and negative parenting sustaining it.     

Psychopathology depression superfactors measured in the clinical analysis questionnaire

In the area of psychometric measurement of depression, the most comprehensive multidimensional instrument is the Clinical Analysis Questionnaire (CAQ). This self-report inventory is purported to measure some 28 normal and abnormal personality source traits. In particular, seven separate depression primaries are claimed to have a measurement basis in the CAQ. Clearly, despite the apparent comprehensiveness of the instrument, there are too many primary factors in the CAQ for practical use in many contexts. In order to simplify interpretation of CAQ scores, it seems desirable to utilise a smaller number of more reliable superfactors wherever possible. The present investigation explores this issue and findings suggest that depression is a complex phenomenon even at the superfactor level. Findings also suggest that traditional psychiatric labels may need to be reworked in the light of the present evidence on superfactors within the psychopathological domain.     

Factor and cluster analyses with the Rosenzweig Picture Frustration Study.

The Rosenzweig Picture Frustration (P-F) Study data of 104 psychiatric hospital patients, 56 males and 48 females, were subjected first to a Factor Analysis and then to a Cluster Analysis. In the former, five factors were extracted which showed some similarity to other Factor Analyses reported in the literature. The Cluster Analysis turned up one very large group (42% of the sample) characterized by depression and P-F profiles with elevated i and very low E scores. Seven other clusters are described in the article. The factors and clusters found are clinically meaningful and can provide assistance in interpreting P-F profiles. Recommendations for a revised P-F manual to enhance the usefulness of the test are made.     

CHANGE IN SELF‐IMAGE AND PTSD SYMPTOMS IN SHORT‐TERM THERAPIES WITH TRAUMATIZED REFUGEES

In this study, an attempt was made to evaluate changes in the self‐image of traumatized refugees receiving short‐term psychotherapy. Fourteen clients with war and torture experiences were followed during and after trauma‐focused therapies with self‐rating instruments. Outcome was measured with SCL‐90, measuring overall psychiatric symptoms, and with PTSS‐10, measuring Post‐traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) symptoms. Self‐image was measured with Structural Analysis of Social Behavior (SASB). The analyses showed considerable remission of both general psychiatric and PTSD‐related symptoms, but more moderate changes in self‐image aspects. The positive aspect of the self‐image was virtually non‐related to the symptom measures and did not change after the termination of the therapy; the negative aspect of the self‐image was more strongly related to the symptoms and changed mainly on the last measurement occasion, 15 months after the therapy end. When clients with good and poor outcome were compared, it was found that those with good outcome had higher initial levels on both the positive and the negative aspects of the self‐images. This was tentatively interpreted as indicating that clients who had invested more energy in their self‐image were better able to utilize the therapy. Different development in the self‐image for these two groups indicated that for some clients, the treatment process might have entailed too much strain.     

Psychometric Characteristics of the Wish to Be Dead Scale (WDS) in Iranian Psychiatric Outpatients

The Wish to be Dead Scale (WDS) was administered to a convenience sample of 200 Iranian psychiatric outpatients. Using a Principal Component Analysis, two factors were identified, labeled Lack of purpose in life (F1), and Lack of interest in living (F2). The WDS had good reliability and significant positive correlations with scores on the Beck Suicide Ideation Scale and with other measures of mental ill-health. This study provides evidence of the usefulness of the WDS for assessing psychiatric patients.