VERY LONG-LASTING PRIMING IN PICTURE NAMING

Abstract— A form of long-lasting repetition priming has been demonstrated by faster naming of pictures repeated from a prior exposure than new pictures. This facilitation is independent of explicit memory in both normal subjects (Mitchell & Brown, 1988) and amnesic patients (Cave & Squire. 1992). Using picture naming, the current study demonstrated that priming could be detected with delays of between 6 and 48 weeks between the initial exposure and the priming test. Recognition memory was also above chance at these delays, but performance on the two tests appeared independent. These results show that a single stimulus exposure can have very long-lasting effects. Accounts of repetition priming as a form of implicit memory will have to accommodate long-lasting changes in stimulus processing based on a single exposure.     

Dissociations between procedural and episodic memory: effects of time and aging

The issue of multiple memory systems is explored. Young and older adults (mean ages = 20 and 71, respectively) named pictures and were tested immediately, 1, 7, or 21 days later. Episodic memory (recognition) for pictures was significantly lower in older relative to young adults and declined systematically across all retention intervals in both age groups. In contrast, procedural memory (repetition priming in picture naming) revealed no reliable age differences. In both age groups, priming declined within the first 24 hr, but unlike recognition, there was no further decrement from 1 to 21 days. There were also within-subject dissociations: The magnitude of priming was equivalent for remembered and forgotten items, and the relation between recognition and priming across intervals was nonmonotic, revealing a reversed association. The findings were interpreted within a multiple-memory-systems framework.     

An Item specific Locus of Repetition Priming

Two principal types of account of repetition priming postulate either facilitation of activation of perceptual representations used in stimulus recognition, or retrieval of specific processing episodes as possible mechanisms by which the effect occurs; these make different predictions concerning the priming of two stimuli presented simultaneously. In Experiments 1-3, subjects made same/different decisions about picture-word stimulus pairs. Recombining the pairings of a subset of items between training and test encounters did not significantly reduce the benefit in response time from repetition, as compared to pairs repeated intact. Subjects were able to remember the pairings (Experiment 4), but this did not influence repetition priming. Instead, the memory representations underlying the priming of each item in a pair were independent. No priming was found between pictures seen at training and words at test, and vice versa (Experiment 5), indicating that representations underlying the repetition effect were domain-specific. In Experiment 6, stimuli were all from within the domain of object pictures. Again, recombining the pairings of items between training and test did not significantly reduce the benefit in response time from repetition, as compared to pairs repeated intact. These results reveal an item-specific locus for repetition priming, consistent with priming occurring within pre-semantic perceptual representation systems involved in item recognition. The findings pose problems for theories that argue that repetition effects result only from retrieval of entire processing episodes.     

Dissociation of rapid response learning and facilitation in perceptual and conceptual networks of person recognition

Repetition priming is a prominent example of non‐declarative memory, and it increases the accuracy and speed of responses to repeatedly processed stimuli. Major long‐hold memory theories posit that repetition priming results from facilitation within perceptual and conceptual networks for stimulus recognition and categorization. Stimuli can also be bound to particular responses, and it has recently been suggested that this rapid response learning, not network facilitation, provides a sound theory of priming of object recognition. Here, we addressed the relevance of network facilitation and rapid response learning for priming of person recognition with a view to advance general theories of priming. In four experiments, participants performed conceptual decisions like occupation or nationality judgments for famous faces. The magnitude of rapid response learning varied across experiments, and rapid response learning co‐occurred and interacted with facilitation in perceptual and conceptual networks. These findings indicate that rapid response learning and facilitation in perceptual and conceptual networks are complementary rather than competing theories of priming. Thus, future memory theories need to incorporate both rapid response learning and network facilitation as individual facets of priming.     

Within- and between-language priming differ: evidence from repetition of pictures in Spanish-English bilinguals

In the current study, the authors used an immediate repetition paradigm with pictures to observe whether repetition enhances word production in bilinguals. In Experiment 1, participants were asked to name pictures that were named previously in the same language (Spanish-Spanish or English-English) or in the opposite language (Spanish-English or English-Spanish). Results revealed a repetition effect both within languages and between languages. Furthermore, there was an asymmetry within language, with repetition priming being larger in Spanish than in English. Experiments 2 and 3 revealed that lag interacted with language for both within- and between-language priming. However, lag resulted in a decrease in the asymmetry for within- but not between-language priming. The results are consistent with the view that within- and between-language repetition priming are mediated by different mechanisms.     

Repetition priming within and between languages in verb generation: evidence for shared verb concepts

Although translation equivalents for concrete nouns are known to have shared core conceptual representations in bilingual memory (Francis, 1999), the status of translation-equivalent verbs has not been systematically tested. Three repetition-priming experiments using a verb generation task were used to determine whether verbs have shared representations across languages and to identify the processes facilitated in repeated verb generation. In Experiment 1 fluent Spanish-English bilingual speakers exhibited repetition priming both within and between languages, but between-language priming was weaker. In Experiment 2 performance of non-bilingual English and Spanish speakers was equivalent to that of bilingual speakers responding in their dominant language. Experiment 3 used manipulations meant to isolate noun comprehension, verb concept selection, and verb production. The between-language priming in Experiments 1 and 3 indicates that verb concepts are shared across languages and that verb concept selection exhibits facilitation. Experiment 3 showed that the greater within-language priming was due primarily to facilitation of verb production processes.     

Repetition priming within and between languages in verb generation: Evidence for shared verb concepts

Although translation equivalents for concrete nouns are known to have shared core conceptual representations in bilingual memory (Francis, 1999), the status of translation-equivalent verbs has not been systematically tested. Three repetition-priming experiments using a verb generation task were used to determine whether verbs have shared representations across languages and to identify the processes facilitated in repeated verb generation. In Experiment 1 fluent Spanish–English bilingual speakers exhibited repetition priming both within and between languages, but between-language priming was weaker. In Experiment 2 performance of non-bilingual English and Spanish speakers was equivalent to that of bilingual speakers responding in their dominant language. Experiment 3 used manipulations meant to isolate noun comprehension, verb concept selection, and verb production. The between-language priming in Experiments 1 and 3 indicates that verb concepts are shared across languages and that verb concept selection exhibits facilitation. Experiment 3 showed that the greater within-language priming was due primarily to facilitation of verb production processes.     

Repetition priming in picture naming: sustained learning through the speeding of multiple processes

Picture naming has been used by vision researchers to study object identification, by language researchers to study word production, and by memory researchers to study implicit memory. Response times for naming repeated pictures decrease with successive repetitions. Repetition priming in picture naming involves an implicit, nonhippocampal form of memory. In this review, the processes speeded with repetition are decomposed, the time course of the effect is characterized, the factors affecting the magnitude of priming are enumerated, and possible mechanisms of priming are evaluated. Both behavioral response time and neuroimaging studies are considered. The processes that are speeded with repetition include high-level object identification and word production processes, but not low-level visual processes or articulation. Repetition priming lasts for at least several weeks and follows a typical forgetting function. The mechanism of priming is concluded to be speeded completion of the component processes of picture naming.     

Accessing lexical memory: The transfer of word repetition effects across task and modality

Reading by literate adults is generally assumed to represent skill acquired years earlier. However, the present experiments show that aspects of that skill can be readily modified. In two experiments, pronunciation of visually presented common words speeded later recognition of those words. This facilitation of recognition occurred although subjects did not expect word repetition and the task was changed from pronunciation to recognition. In contrast, naming pictures did not facilitate later recognition of visually presented picture names. The occurrence of facilitation when the task was changed and the lack of facilitation when stimulus format was changed suggest that facilitation occurs in the processes of encoding and accessing memory, processes that may change little across tasks but may change substantially with stimulus format changes. This facilitation of recognition occurs automatically without mediation by subjects’ expectations. A third experiment indicates that this facilitation of recognition shows little relation to episodic memory.     

Contrasting effects of repetition across tasks: Implications for understanding the nature of refractory behavior and models of semantic memory

We describe a patient (J.M.) who showed “refractory” behavior in picture—word matching tasks—that is, his performance became poorer when items were repeated. This contrasts with the facilitatory effects of repetition usually observed in normal participants. We show for the first time that there can be facilitatory effects of repetition on some tasks, even though refractory behavior is shown on the same items in other tasks. In particular, in Experiments 1 and 2, we demonstrate that J.M. showed contrasting effects of repetition across different components of the language system: There were facilitatory effects of repetition priming on lexical decision but refractory behavior on picture—word matching. In Experiments 3 and 4, we demonstrate that J.M. showed contrasting effects of repetition within the same system (semantic memory). His performance became refractory when items were repeated in picture—word matching (Experiment 3), but it was facilitated when items were repeated in superordinate categorization (Experiment 4). These contrasting patterns of facilitation and interference from repetition priming have implications for understanding the nature of refractory behavior and for constraining theoretical accounts of semantic memory.     

Repetition priming endurance in picture naming and translation: Contributions of component processes

The processes contributing to the durability of repetition priming in picture naming and its decline across a week were assessed in two experiments with Spanish-English bilinguals. In Experiment 1, both picture identification and word retrieval processes of picture naming exhibited facilitation after a week. Word retrieval priming declined substantially relative to a 10-min retention interval, but picture identification priming remained stable. In Experiment 2, word translation exhibited repetition priming after a week. Decreased word retrieval priming accounted for the attenuation of translation priming relative to a 10-min interval, whereas word comprehension priming remained stable. A linear process model was used to formalize and test key hypotheses and to clarify the influences of component processes and retention interval on repetition priming.     

Intact and long-lasting repetition priming in amnesia.

In 2 experiments, we evaluated the ability of amnesic patients to exhibit long-lasting perceptual priming after a single exposure to pictures. Ss named pictures as quickly as possible on a single occasion, and later named the same pictures mixed with new pictures. In Experiment 1, amnesic patients exhibited fully intact priming effects lasting at least 7 days. In Experiment 2, the priming effect for both groups was shown to depend on both highly specific visual information and on less visual, more conceptual information. In contrast, recognition memory was severely impaired in the patients, as assessed by both accuracy and response time. The results provide the first report of a long-lasting priming effect in amnesic patients, based on a single encounter, which occurs as strongly in the patients as in normal Ss. Together with other recent findings, the results suggest that long-lasting priming and recognition memory depend on separate brain systems.     

Age of acquisition and repetition priming effects on picture naming of children who do and do not stutter

The effects of age of acquisition and repetition priming on picture naming latencies and errors were studied in 22 children who stutter (CWS) and 22 children who do not stutter (CWNS) between the ages of 3;1 and 5;7. Children participated in a computerized picture naming task where they named pictures of both early and late acquired (AoA) words in two consecutive stages. Findings revealed that all children's picture naming latencies and errors were reduced following repetition priming and in response to early AoA words relative to late AoA words. AoA and repetition priming effects were similar for children in both talker groups, with one exception. Namely, CWS benefitted significantly more, in terms of error reduction, than CWNS from repetition priming for late AoA words. In addition, CWNS exhibited a significant, positive association between linguistic speed and measures of vocabulary, but CWS did not. These findings were taken to suggest that the (a) semantic-phonological connections of CWS may not be as strong as those of CWNS, and (b) existing lexical measures may not be sensitive enough to differentiate CWS from CWNS in lexically related aspects of language production. Educational objectives: After reading this article, the learner will be able to: (a) describe the effects of repetition priming and age of word acquisition in speech production; (b) summarize the performance similarities and differences of children who stutter and children who do not stutter on a computerized picture naming task; and (c) compare the results of the present study with previous work in this area.     

Repetition priming reveals sustained facilitation and transient inhibition in reaction time

Reaction time (RT) in a detection or a location discrimination task increases when a target is repeatedly presented at the same location (inhibition), whereas RT decreases in feature (color or orientation) discrimination tasks (facilitation; Y. Tanaka & S. Shimojo, 1996a). Here, the time course of inhibition and facilitation was examined, using a repetition priming paradigm. Results indicate that inhibition occurred only in the immediately successive trial, whereas facilitation accumulated over several trials with location repetition. Moreover, inhibition and facilitation occurred in a task-relevant manner: Detection-location discrimination tasks produced transient RT increase, whereas feature discrimination tasks produced cumulative RT decrease. These results suggest a functional dissociation between spatial orienting and feature analysis, as well as top-down modulations by tasks leading to different types of visual memory.     

Selective attention affects implicit and explicit memory for familiar pictures at different delay conditions

Three experiments investigated the effects of two variables -selective attention during encoding and delay between study and test- on implicit (picture fragment completion and object naming) and explicit (free recall and recognition) memory tests. Experiments 1 and 2 consistently indicated that (a) at all delays (immediate to 1 month), picture-fragment identification threshold was lower for the attended than the unattended pictures; (b) the attended pictures were recalled and recognized better than the unattended; and (c) attention and delay interacted in both memory tests. For implicit memory, performance decreased as delay increased for both attended and unattended pictures, but priming was more pronounced and lasted longer for the attended pictures; it was still present after a 1-month delay. For explicit memory, performance decreased as delay increased for attended pictures, but for unattended pictures performance was consistent throughout delay. By using a perceptual object naming task, Experiment 3 showed reliable implicit and explicit memory for attended but not for unattended pictures. This study indicates that picture repetition priming requires attention at the time of study and that neither delay nor attention dissociate performance in explicit and implicit memory tests; both types of memory require attention, but explicit memory does so to a larger degree.     

Components of activation: repetition and priming effects in lexical decision and recognition

Activation decay functions were examined in two different tasks: lexical decision and word recognition. Activation (amount of facilitation) was measured both for item repetition and for priming between newly learned associates. Results indicate that there are at least three different components of activation: a short-term component that decays with one or two intervening items and that appears to be common to priming and repetition; an intermediate component for repetition in recognition; and a long-term component for repetition.     

How not to revisit Highway 61: Negative repetition effects in a post-cue naming task

Repetition effects were studied in a post-cue naming task, in which participants were cued to name one of two stimuli following their presentation. When pairs of pictures were repeated in a second block, former distractors (not named in Block 1) were named faster than former targets (named in Block 1). This negative repetition effect was not found when two words rather than two pictures were used or when a semantic categorization task was used with two pictures. From this we conclude that the effect reflects a process of mapping from a semantic representation to a name. Negative repetition was not found with a simultaneous selection cue, suggesting that it arose only when there was competition for name selection. It was also dependent on memory for previous acts of semantic naming. We propose that negative repetition reflects a form of speech monitoring that is applied when there is competition in the process of mapping from semantic to name representations.     

Repetition proportion biases masked priming of lexical decisions

Although subjects have little or no awareness of masked primes, Bodner and Masson (2001) found that priming of lexical decisions is often enhanced when masked repetition primes occur on a high proportion of trials. We used baseline prime conditions to specify the locus of this repetition proportion (RP) effect. In Experiments 1A and 1B, a .8-RP group showed more priming than did a .2-RP group, and this RP effect was due to both (1) increased facilitation from repetition primes and (2) increased interference from unrelated primes. In Experiment 2, we used the baseline condition to show that subjects are sensitive to RP rather than to the proportion of unrelated primes. Direct comparisons of a given prime condition (repetition, unrelated) across RP conditions were more stable than were comparisons relative to the baseline condition. The increased costs and benefits of repetition priming when RP is higher implicate a context-sensitive mechanism that constrains accounts of masked priming.     

在抑制分心物干扰效应上学困生和学优生的比较

采用Stroop颜色命名作业,在严格控制各种条件下探究重复分心物的促进效应是由习惯化机制还是由分心物连续抑制机制造成的问题,进而比较学困生和学优生在Stroop干扰效应、重复分心物促进效应和负启动效应上的差异,结果显示,重复分心物促进效应是由习惯化机制造成的。这种抑制机制,只有在分心物重复条件下才能发挥作用;因而其效用并不广泛;而负启动效应所指的分心物抑制机制却是一种效用广泛的抑制机制。并进而揭示,学困生和学优生都存在重复分心物促进效应,但因学困生的负启动效应比学优生小,所以学困生在Stroop色词干扰效应上大于学优生。     

Opposing effects of age and reading ability on pseudoword priming

Repetition priming refers to the facilitation of stimulus processing due to prior processing of the same or similar stimulus, and is one of the most primitive ways in which experience and practice can affect performance. Previous studies have produced contradictory results regarding the stability of repetition priming across development. Drawing on models of word priming that suggest decreased priming with increased reading ability, the present experiment investigated the possibility that null effects of age in priming are due to opposing effects of age and reading ability on priming magnitude. Forty-eight participants between 7 and 22 years old read aloud primed and unprimed pseudowords, after completing a reading ability assessment. In line with predictions, the magnitude of priming for pseudowords increased with increased age when reading ability was controlled, and decreased with increased reading ability when age was controlled. Moreover, neither the age nor ability effect was significant when tested without the other. Results were not influenced by explicit memory for primed pseudowords. Thus, the present experiment provides evidence for developmental increases in word priming, as well as a potential explanation for the lack of developmental effects in previous studies.