TRANSFER OF TRAINING: A REVIEW AND DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

Transfer of training is of paramount concern for training researchers and practitioners. Despite research efforts, there is a growing concern over the "transfer problem." The purpose of this paper is to provide a critique of the existing transfer research and to suggest directions for future research investigations. The conditions of transfer include both the generalization of learned material to the job and the maintenance of trained skills over a period of time on the job. The existing research examining the effects of training design, trainee, and work-environment factors on conditions of transfer is reviewed and critiqued. Research gaps identified from the review include the need to (1) test various operationalizations of training design and work-environment factors that have been posited as having an impact on transfer and (2) develop a framework for conducting research on the effects of trainee characteristics on transfer. Needed advancements in the conceptualization and operationalization of the criterion of transfer are also discussed.     

TRAINING PROGRAMS FOR OBSERVERS OF BEHAVIOR: A REVIEW1

This review covers the past 25 years of research literature on training observers of behavior, specifically in the areas of interviewing, reducing rater bias, interpersonal perception and observation as a research tool. The focus is on training procedure (i.e., the various training designs and their components). An attempt is made to organize and systematize the research and to answer two important questions. Which approach(es) used to train observers of behavior has (have) been most successful? What are the theoretical or empirical bases for the development of those training programs?     

A BEHAVIORAL SYSTEM FOR ASSESSING AND TRAINING CARDIOPULMONARY RESUSCITATION SKILLS AMONG EMERGENCY MEDICAL TECHNICIANS

Many deaths from cardiopulmonary arrest can be prevented by the prompt and effective administration of cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). In this study, we examined the standard training program for teaching CPR to emergency medical technicians (EMTs). We developed an alternative experimental program whereby the behaviors involved in CPR were assessed easily and in greater detail. This assessment provided the basis for a system in which effective CPR skills were reinforced and problems were corrected. Subjects who were trained in CPR according to this experimental program performed more effectively than subjects in the standard program. In addition, retention (maintenance) measures indicated that experimental subjects continued to perform well, often more effectively than professionally employed EMTs.     

AN ANALYSIS OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INFORMATION SOURCES AND CREATIVITY IN SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS

The literature is replete with analyses of creativity as related to personality traits and organizational constraints. Based on Mednick's (1962) associationist position, it was felt that information use patterns play a key role in an individual's process of creativity. In order to test this idea, 29 academic and 36 industrial physical scientists and engineers were categorized as either creative and productive; productive, but not creative; or noncreative and nonproductive on the basis of peer evaluation. Their information seeking and receiving behavior and attitudes were then measured and related to the criterion group membership. Two significant results emerged; First, consistent with the associationist position, variety of exposure to information content, in terms of scientific disciplines from which the information was received, was significantly different for the three groups, with the creative group having the greatest variety. Second, group membership can, with a fairly high probability, be predicted based on information seeking behavior and attitudes.     

COMMUNICATION SKILLS TRAINING FOR PARENTS: EXPERIMENTAL AND SOCIAL VALIDATION

Coordination of professional services on behalf of children often hinges on the involvement of informed parents. The purposes of this study were to identify and experimentally and socially validate skills required of parents for effective communication with professionals. Target skills were identified on the basis of judges' social validation ratings of (a) sample interactions between parents and professionals and (b) the behaviors comprising a resultant task analysis. Eight parents were then trained in these skills via an instructional package. Results of a multiple baseline design across subjects and grouped skill domains showed that each parent acquired the targeted skills during simulated conferences and that correct responding usually generalized to actual conferences. Independent judges validated training outcomes, and participating parents indicated satisfaction with the curriculum.     

SOCIAL COMPARISON THEORY AND THE EVALUATION OF PEER EVALUATIONS: A REVIEW AND SOME APPLIED IMPLICATIONS

Some of the more fundamental characteristics of peer evaluations were reviewed and their striking industrial validity was noted. Subsequently, the theories put forth to account for the validity of peer evaluations were examined and found to be wanting. A review of the conditions under which peer evaluations yield strong validity coefficients as well as certain factor analytic and experimental studies indicated that social comparison theory might provide a useful framework for elucidating the nature of peer evaluation process. This theory was then related to the characteristics of peer evaluation and certain applied implications were suggested. It was concluded that further empirical research along these lines might have some value.     

WORK ENGAGEMENT: A QUANTITATIVE REVIEW AND TEST OF ITS RELATIONS WITH TASK AND CONTEXTUAL PERFORMANCE

Many researchers have concerns about work engagement's distinction from other constructs and its theoretical merit. The goals of this study were to identify an agreed‐upon definition of engagement, to investigate its uniqueness, and to clarify its nomological network of constructs. Using a conceptual framework based on Macey and Schneider (2008; Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 1, 3–30), we found that engagement exhibits discriminant validity from, and criterion related validity over, job attitudes. We also found that engagement is related to several key antecedents and consequences. Finally, we used meta‐analytic path modeling to test the role of engagement as a mediator of the relation between distal antecedents and job performance, finding support for our conceptual framework. In sum, our results suggest that work engagement is a useful construct that deserves further attention.     

SELF-CONTROL TRAINING IN THE CLASSROOM: A REVIEW AND CRITIQUE

Self-control training in classroom settings is becoming widespread. Establishing effective self- rather than externally controlled behavior modification programs in schools would enable children to control their own academic and social behavior, while enabling teachers to devote more time to teaching. The following components of self-control are reviewed in the present article: self-recording, self-evaluation, self-determination of contingencies, and self-instruction. Self-control strategies designed for the maintenance of appropriate classroom behavior, and issues associated with self-control training, such as the reliability of self-observation, response maintenance, generalization, and the role of external control, are examined. Finally, suggestions for maximizing the potential effectiveness of self-control training in the classroom (e.g., teaching self-observational procedures, teaching students to provide themselves with instructions and praise), as well as future areas for experimental investigation (e.g., social changes that may be associated with self-control procedures), are presented.     

ACCEPTABILITY OF ALTERNATIVE TREATMENTS FOR SCHOOL REFUSAL: EVALUATIONS BY STUDENTS,CAREGIVERS, AND PROFESSIONALS

Summary . School refusal is a debilitating condition that may be treated in various ways. This study examined the acceptability and perceived effectiveness of alternative treatments for school refusal. A total of 376 people comprising students, parents, and professionals, were required to evaluate several treatment options in relation to a vignette. Despite its potential aversiveness, behavioural management was the most acceptable treatment approach followed, in order, by home tuition with psychotherapy, hospitalisation, and medication. A strong positive relationship was found between acceptability and perceived effectiveness.     

THE PROCESS OF RETIREMENT: A REVIEW AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE INVESTIGATION

Since the average ages of many industrialized nations' workers are increasing, it is important to know (1) the causes of employees' decisions to retire early and (2) the effects of retirement on the lives of retirees and on their employing organizations. The fields of gerontology and of social, clinical, and developmental psychology have investigated retirement, usually focusing on individual well-being as a criterion. Industrial/organizational psychology generally has not delved into the topic. A review of the empirical literature and theories regarding the two retirement issues leads to conclusions that are very tentative due to the nature of the research methods used until now. I/O psychologists have the opportunity to contribute to knowledge about retirement because of their dual interests in both individuals and organizations and because of their tradition of scientific rigor. Propositions are provided for future research.     

THE VALIDATION OF A MINICOURSE FOR TELEPHONE COMPANY SWITCHING TECHNICIANS1

The introduction of electronic switching equipment has changed the nature of the telephone company switching job. A lengthy and complex training program must be completed before an employee can perform the electronic switching job. Because of the high cost of this training a more elaborate, second-stage selection procedure was developed. The ESS Minicourse was designed to be a self-paced content valid sample of ESS training which would be suitable for use with job candidates without any previous telephone company experience. A criterion-related validity study was undertaken to provide further evidence of validity as well as data helpful in setting a cutting score. Results showed that a combination of time to complete the Minicourse and performance on the objective tests was predictive of time to complete self-paced training in electronic switching. Cross- validated estimates of validity were used to develop estimates of u'tility given different selection ratios.     

A PROPOSAL FOR THE CREATION OF A HUMAN AND COMPUTER METALANGUAGE

Since the beginning of the last century, with the development of the Theory of Relativity, an ever-growing gap has come into being between our knowledge about the structure of the world around us and our ability to conceptualize it. Because language plays a major role in our ability to describe the world and our role within it, a need has been created to match the capabilities of language to the knowledge we currently possess about the world we inhabit. This article will focus on two main arguments: (A) our ability to describe and conceptualize the world using a language that is limited, problematic and finite and (B) The possibility of developing a new language based on other principles than those governing verbal speech, which can deal with these limitations and problems and which is better suited to describing the world as we know it today.     

有关开设思维能力训练课程对中学生智能水平影响的实验研究

本实验探讨思维能力训练课程对于中学生(初一和高一)智能的影响。实验历时三个月,12课时。结果表明:中学生在掌握了一定的思维策略后,能够在较短的时间内提高其智能水平;在一定的范围内思维能力训练效果是可以迁移的;性别、年龄差异对训练效果没有显著影响;学生原有的智能水平与训练效果之间存在着交互作用。     

PERSONAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL STRATEGIES FOR HANDLING JOB STRESS: A REVIEW OF RESEARCH AND OPINION

The medical and psychological literature pertaining to personal and organizational strategies for handling Job stress is reviewed. The paucity of research in this domain is emphasized as is the lack of involvement by industrial/organizational psychologists. Many strategies for managing job stress exist but their effectiveness has not been evaluated. It is important that such strategies receive the immediate, scientific attention of I/O psychologists. Issues that must be faced before significant progress can be achieved are discussed.