Learning outcomes in leadership teams: The multilevel dynamics of mastery goal orientation,team psychological safety,and team potency

A sample of 166 individual participants in 47 school leadership teams was used to investigate the multilevel relationships between individual learning outcomes and two dimensions of individual mastery achievement goal orientation—mastery approach goals (MAP), and an emotionally modified measure of mastery avoidance goals (MAV)—and two group-level emergent beliefs, namely, team potency and team psychological safety. All variables were independently positively related to individual learning; however, team potency had no incremental effect above team psychological safety. MAP and team potency interacted negatively on individual learning, indicating that the emergence of high potency in teams may compensate for low average level of MAP in teams. When running the complete research model, MAV and team psychological safety remained positively related to individual learning, in contrast to team potency and MAP. The implications of the findings for leadership teams are discussed.     

Goal orientation and self-efficacy in relation to memory in adulthood

The achievement goal framework (Dweck, 1986, American Psychologist, 41, 1040) has been well-established in children and college-students, but has rarely been examined empirically with older adults. The current study, including younger and older adults, examined the effects of memory self-efficacy, learning goals (focusing on skill mastery over time) and performance goals (focusing on performance outcome evaluations) on memory performance. Questionnaires measured memory self-efficacy and general orientation toward learning and performance goals; free and cued recall was assessed in a subsequent telephone interview. As expected, age was negatively related and education was positively related to memory self-efficacy, and memory self-efficacy was positively related to memory, in a structural equation model. Age was also negatively related to memory performance. Results supported the positive impact of learning goals and the negative impact of performance goals on memory self-efficacy. There was no significant direct effect of learning or performance goals on memory performance; their impact occurred via their effect on memory self-efficacy. The present study supports past research suggesting that learning goals are beneficial, and performance goals are maladaptive, for self-efficacy and learning, and validates the achievement goal framework in a sample including older adults.     

Social perceptions of achieving students and achievement goals of students in Malaysia and the Philippines

The study investigates the hypothesis that country differences in achievement goals of students are associated with differences in how students with different achievement goals are perceived by students in different cultures. University students from Malaysia and the Philippine were asked to complete questionnaires on their achievement goals and on their perceptions of hypothetical students who exemplify the different achievement goals. The perception questions related to social goals such as peer affiliation, personal qualities, and likeability. The achievement goals data indicated that Filipino students reported higher levels of mastery goals compared to their Malaysian counterparts, who in turn reported higher levels of performance approach goals. Hierarchical regression analysis indicate that country differences in mastery and performance goals can be accounted for by differences in perceptions of mastery- and performance-goal oriented peers, particularly those perceptions that relate to social affiliation and social approval. The results are discussed in terms of how achievement goal constructs are perceived in different countries, and how differences in perception may relate to some social dimensions in the adoption of achievement goals.     

Socially oriented achievement goals of Chinese university students in Singapore: structure and relationships with achievement motives, goals and affective outcomes

Contemporary literature on culture, self, and motivations (Markus & Kitayama, 1991) suggests that in collectivistic cultures, individual achievement is interdependent of one's social others. We proposed that this cultural characteristic could be exemplified in the achievement goal orientation and tested the notion with university students in a collectivistic community-Singapore. A socially oriented achievement goal construct was developed by taking into consideration the significant social others in the students' lives. A measuring instrument was established with a sample of Singaporean Chinese university students (N = 196; 144 females and 52 males); its relationships to achievement motives, goals, and consequences were examined. Although the socially oriented achievement goal items were originally constructed from four categories of social others, confirmatory factor analysis suggested a unifactor structure. Results showed that the socially oriented goal was related positively with students' performance goal, mastery goal, and competitive motive; it bore no relationship to mastery motive, work ethic, and interest in learning; and it predicted negatively future engagement. After the effects of mastery and performance goals were controlled for, the socially oriented goal did not predict test anxiety.     

The Interplay among Stereotypes, Performance-Avoidance Goals, and Women's Math Performance Expectations

This project was designed to examine whether and how achievement goals contribute to the effect of gender stereotypes on women's low expectancies for success on math tasks. Study 1 confirmed predictions from the Stereotyped Task Engagement Process (STEP) model (Smith, 2004) by demonstrating that, compared to a counter-stereotype situation, women reminded of the gender-stereotype endorsed performance-avoidance goals. Study 2 tested whether performance-goal adoption differed between men and women. Results showed that, compared to men, women in a stereotype salient math situation were more likely to endorse performance-avoidance achievement goals. This performance-avoidance goal adoption in turn, accounted for the negative relationship between participants' gender and performance expectations for a standardized math test.     

成就目标导向、团队绩效控制对员工创造力的跨层次影响

成就目标导向在团队绩效控制情境下能否有效预测员工创造力是个值得关注的话题。以研发团队为研究对象, 运用线性阶层模型考察了三者间的跨层次关系。结果发现, 低绩效控制下, 精熟目标导向、表现–趋近导向对创造力有正向影响, 表现-回避导向有负向影响; 高绩效控制下, 精熟导向对创造力有“S型”非线性影响, 表现-回避导向有正向影响。结果表明, 高精熟目标导向在高绩效控制情境下抑制员工创造力, 而表现导向也并非总是与缺乏创造力联系起来, 提高表现-回避导向个体的绩效控制程度或者降低表现-趋近导向个体的绩效控制程度同样可以促进创造力。启示在于, 管理者不仅应关注成就导向的个体差异, 更应重视构建相应的绩效控制情境, 从二者交互作用出发激活员工创造力。     

Individual and social dimensions of Filipino students' achievement goals

Achievement goal theory assumes that self-instrumental (mastery) achievement goals are associated with academic achievement, whereas social-instrumental (performance) goals are not. However, research on Asian students shows that both mastery and performance-approach goals are positively related to achievement; possibly because achievement motivation in Asian cultures is socially oriented and not individually oriented. The current study explored the structure of the social and individual achievement motivation orientations, and how these achievement orientations and achievement goals were related to achievement of Filipino university students. The results showed two dimensions of social-oriented achievement motivations-parent-oriented and teacher-oriented motivations-and two dimensions of individual-oriented achievement motivations-personal performance standards and personal goal choice. However, these achievement motivation orientations were not associated with achievement. Instead mastery and performance-approach goals were both positively associated with academic achievement, personal performance standards, and parent-oriented achievement motivation.     

中学生成就目标相关因素的发展研究

探索了影响中学生成就目标各因素间的相互关系及其对学业成绩的影响,并就此提出一个中学生学业活动的简洁模式。(1)中学生的认知参与和能力知觉、成就目标之间极显著正相关,学业焦虑和认知参与、能力知觉、成就目标之间显著负相关;两成就目标间的相关不显著;(2)能力知觉、认知参与、学业焦虑是学业成绩的有效预测因子。     

Challenging tasks: The role of employees' and supervisors' goal orientations

Research shows that challenging jobs stimulate employee learning and retention. Nevertheless, empirical knowledge on what influences the amount of challenging tasks employees perform in their job is lacking. In this study, we examined the extent to which the performance of challenging tasks is related to employees' and supervisors' goal orientations. We found a positive relationship between employees' mastery-approach orientation and the performance of challenging tasks. Furthermore, if supervisors had authority over the tasks of their employees, supervisors' goal orientations were related to employees' task challenge. Performing challenging tasks was negatively related to supervisors' performance-approach orientation and positively related to supervisors' performance-avoidance orientation.     

To master or perform? Exploring relations between achievement goals and conceptual change learning

Background. Research is needed to explore conceptual change in relation to achievement goal orientations and depth of processing. Aims. To address this need, we examined relations between achievement goals, use of deep versus shallow processing strategies, and conceptual change learning using a think‐aloud protocol. Sample and Method. Seventy‐three undergraduate students were assessed on their prior knowledge and misconceptions about Newtonian mechanics, and then reported their achievement goals and participated in think‐aloud protocols while reading Newtonian physics texts. Results. A mastery‐approach goal orientation positively predicted deep processing strategies, shallow processing strategies, and conceptual change. In contrast, a performance‐approach goal orientation did not predict either of the processing strategies, but negatively predicted conceptual change. A performance‐avoidance goal orientation negatively predicted deep processing strategies and conceptual change. Moreover, deep and shallow processing strategies positively predicted conceptual change as well as recall. Finally, both deep and shallow processing strategies mediated relations between mastery‐approach goals and conceptual change. Conclusions. Results provide some support for Dole and Sinatra's (1998) Cognitive Reconstruction of Knowledge Model of conceptual change but also challenge specific facets with regard to the role of depth of processing in conceptual change.     

Disentangling empowerment: Considering the role of employee perceptions in adaptive selling

As more jobs require employees to continually learn and adapt, empowering employees to adopt learning goals becomes a competitive advantage. Although research has identified key leadership behaviors that empower employees, the relationship between managers and empowered employees is ongoing and dynamic. Therefore, it is important to understand how key leadership behaviors interact with employees in their current state of empowerment to influence learning and performance. In this paper, we draw from self-determination theory to argue that the way employees perceive a given leadership behavior will differ by dimension of empowerment, and these perceptions impact their intrinsic motivation to learn. Specifically, employees who are high in competence and impact will perceive the leadership behavior of goal clarity as controlling, and be less likely to set learning goals, while those who are high in autonomy and meaning will perceive the same behavior as supportive, and be more likely to set learning goals. In a time-lagged study of 349 salespeople, we find that goal clarity acts as a boundary condition by weakening the relationship between empowerment and learning goal orientation (LGO) for those high on the competence and impact dimensions. As hypothesized, we find that the same behavior of goal clarity actually strengthens the relationship for those high on the autonomy and meaning dimensions. Further, we provide theoretical and empirical evidence that LGO mediates the relationship between empowerment and adaptive selling.     

Predicting academic self‐handicapping in different age groups: The role of personal achievement goals and social goals

Background. Academic self‐handicapping refers to the use of impediments to successful performance on academic tasks. Previous studies have shown that it is related to personal achievement goals. A performance goal orientation is a positive predictor of self‐handicapping, whereas a task goal orientation is unrelated to self‐handicapping. Aims. The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between academic self‐handicapping, goal orientations (task, performance‐approach, performance‐avoidance), social goals, future consequences and achievement in mathematics. An additional aim was to investigate grade‐level and gender differences in relation to academic self‐handicapping. Sample. Participants were 702 upper elementary, junior and senior high school students with approximately equal numbers of girls and boys. Results. There were no grade‐level or gender differences as regards the use of self‐handicapping. The correlations among the variables revealed that, when the whole sample was considered, self‐handicapping was positively related to performance goal orientations and pleasing significant others and negatively to achievement in mathematics. The results of hierarchical regression analysis showed that, in upper elementary and junior high schools, the association between achievement in mathematics and self‐handicapping was mediated by performance‐avoidance goals. In senior high school, only task goal orientation was a negative predictor of self‐handicapping.     

Perfectionism and achievement goals in athletes: Relations with approach and avoidance orientations in mastery and performance goals

ObjectivesChallenging views that perfectionism is a maladaptive factor in sport and that it is related to a preoccupation with performance goals and a neglect of mastery goals, the present article argues that perfectionism in athletes is not generally maladaptive, but shows differential relationships with mastery and performance goals depending on which facets of perfectionism are regarded.MethodGoing beyond the dichotomous achievement goal framework, two studies with N=204 high school athletes and N=147 university student are presented investigating how two facets of perfectionism—striving for perfection and negative reactions to imperfection [Stoeber, J., Otto, K., Pescheck, E., Becker, C., & Stoll, O. (2007). Perfectionism and competitive anxiety in athletes: Differentiating striving for perfection and negative reactions to imperfection. Personality and Individual Differences, 42, 959–969.]—relate to athletes’ achievement goals.DesignStudy 1 employed a cross-sectional correlational design, Study 2 a longitudinal correlational design.ResultsFollowing the trichotomous achievement goal framework, Study 1 found striving for perfection to be positively related to mastery and performance-approach goals, whereas negative reactions to imperfection were positively related to performance-approach and performance-avoidance goals and inversely to mastery goals. Following the 2×2 framework, Study 2 found striving for perfection to be positively related to mastery-approach and performance-approach goals whereas negative reactions to imperfection were positively related to mastery-avoidance, performance-approach, and performance-avoidance goals. Moreover, negative reactions to imperfection predicted residual increases in mastery-avoidance goals over 3 months.ConclusionsIt is concluded that striving for perfection in athletes is associated with an adaptive pattern of achievement goals whereas negative reactions to imperfection are associated with a maladaptive pattern. Thus, striving for perfection in sport may be adaptive in athletes who do not experience strong negative reactions when performance is less than perfect.     

Goal orientations and the seeking of different types of feedback information

Based on the goal orientation model of feedback‐seeking behaviour, goal orientations are proposed to influence employees in the type of information they seek from knowledgeable others in the work environment. As hypothesized, a survey conducted among 170 medical residents of a Dutch university hospital showed that a learning‐approach goal orientation had a positive relationship with the seeking of self‐improvement information and a negative relationship with the seeking of self‐validation information. In contrast, a performance‐approach goal orientation was negatively related to the seeking of self‐improvement information, while a performance‐avoidance goal orientation was positively related to the seeking of self‐validation information. Unexpectedly, a performance‐avoidance goal orientation was also found to be positively related to the seeking of self‐improvement information.     

The effects of competition on achievement motivation in Chinese classrooms

Background: Laboratory studies have consistently found that competition induces performance goals and affects learning motivation. However, the ecological validity of these results is yet to be established. There is a need for investigation of whether the results hold in both the classroom context and non‐Western culture. Aim: The study investigated the effects of competition on learning motivation among Chinese students in an authentic classroom setting. Sample: The participants were 52 students of grade 7 from two Hong Kong secondary schools. Method: They were randomly assigned to either competitive or non‐competitive conditions in a 2‐hour Chinese typewriting course. Results: Students in the competitive condition performed better in easy tasks than their counterparts in the non‐competitive condition. However, they were more performance‐oriented and more likely to sacrifice learning opportunities for better performance. They were also prone to have worse self‐evaluation after failure. Although there were no statistically significant differences between the two conditions in task enjoyment and achievement attribution, the direction of the differences was consistently unfavourable to students in the competitive condition. Conclusion: The findings were consistent with the predictions of goal theory. Competitiveness induces performance goals and worse self‐evaluation after failure among Chinese students in a classroom setting, as was found with Western students in a laboratory setting.     

Perfectionism and exam performance: The mediating effect of task-approach goals

Perfectionistic strivings are positively correlated with students’ achievement goals and exam performance. However, so far no study has employed a prospective design investigating whether achievement goals mediate the positive relationship between perfectionistic strivings and exam performance. In the present study, 100 university students completed a measure of self-oriented perfectionism and socially prescribed perfectionism (Hewitt & Flett, 1991) and received a chapter from a textbook to study for 2–4 days. Then they returned to the lab to complete a measure of achievement goals following the 3 × 2 model (Elliot, Murayama, & Pekrun, 2011) and sit a mock exam testing their knowledge of the chapter. Multiple regressions showed that socially prescribed perfectionism negatively predicted exam performance when the overlap with self-oriented perfectionism was controlled for. In contrast, self-oriented perfectionism—a defining indicator of perfectionistic strivings—positively predicted exam performance. Moreover, task-approach goals mediated the positive relationship between self-oriented perfectionism and exam performance. The findings suggest that perfectionistic strivings make students adopt task-approach goals that help them achieve better results on exams.     

A mediation analysis of achievement motives,goals, learning strategies,and academic achievement

Background. Previous research is inconclusive regarding antecedents and consequences of achievement goals, and there is a need for more research in order to examine the joint effects of different types of motives and learning strategies as predictors of academic achievement. Aims. To investigate the relationship between achievement motives, achievement goals, learning strategies (deep, surface, and strategic), and academic achievement in a hierarchical model. Sample. Participants were 229 undergraduate students (mean age: 21.2 years) of psychology and economics at the University of Bergen, Norway. Methods. Variables were measured by means of items from the Achievement Motives Scale (AMS), the Approaches and Study Skills Inventory for Students, and an achievement goal scale. Results. Correlation analysis showed that academic achievement (examination grade) was positively correlated with performance‐approach goal, mastery goal, and strategic learning strategies, and negatively correlated with performance‐avoidance goal and surface learning strategy. A path analysis (structural equation model) showed that achievement goals were mediators between achievement motives and learning strategies, and that strategic learning strategies mediated the relationship between achievement goals and academic achievement. Conclusions. This study integrated previous findings from several studies and provided new evidence on the direct and indirect effects of different types of motives and learning strategies as predictors of academic achievement.     

Goal orientation and ability: interactive effects on self-efficacy,performance, and knowledge

This study examined the direct relationship of goal orientation--and the interaction of goal orientation and cognitive ability--with self-efficacy, performance, and knowledge in a learning context. The authors argue that whether a particular type of goal orientation is adaptive or not adaptive depends on individuals' cognitive ability. Consistent with previous research, learning orientation was positively related to self-efficacy, performance, and knowledge, whereas performance orientation was negatively related to performance only. The interactions between goal orientation and ability also supported several hypotheses. As expected, learning orientation was generally adaptive for high-ability individuals but had no effect for low-ability individuals. In contrast, the effects of performance orientation were contingent on both individuals' level of cognitive ability and the outcome examined.     

The relationship between goal orientation and career striving in young adolescents

We surveyed 280 students (61% girls; M = 15.3 years) and, in the context of goal setting theory and self‐regulation, tested a cross‐sectional model in which goal orientation (learning, performance–prove, performance–avoid) was viewed as an antecedent to self‐efficacy and outcome expectations, self‐efficacy and outcome expectations were tested as antecedents to goal setting, and goal setting tested as an antecedent to career‐striving behaviors (exploration, planning). After controlling for educational achievement, learning orientation was directly, positively, associated with self‐efficacy and outcome expectations, and indirectly associated with career aspirations, career exploration, and planning; and performance–avoid orientation was negatively associated with self‐efficacy. The study demonstrated that goal orientation is an important variable to consider when examining career development in adolescents.     

Relationships between climate, process, and performance in continuous quality improvement groups

This study examined relationships between group climate (participants’ learning orientation, feelings of psychological safety, and self-disclosure), process (feedback and conflict), and performance in continuous quality improvement groups. Forty-nine participants in eight hospital groups were surveyed as the groups neared completion. Groups were classified as high or low performing based on interviews with group leaders and facilitators. Ratings of self-disclosure and feelings of psychological safety were related to lower relationship and task conflict and more giving and seeking feedback. Learning orientation was positively related to feedback. Climate and feedback were positively related to creativity of outcomes, while learning orientation and having an active facilitator were related to performance ratings. High performing teams were higher in ratings of learning orientation, facilitation, creativity of outcomes, and overall performance. The results demonstrate the importance of facilitation of learning and interpersonal relationships within structured groups.