General Versus Specific Victim Blaming

Abstract

The authors investigated (a) whether victim blaming is a general variable in a person's make-up or (b) whether the extent of blaming depends on the kind of victim considered. The authors evaluated scales for blaming (a) victims in general, (b) society in general, (c) a specific kind of victim (i.e., AIDS), and (d) the society in which AIDS victims live. The general and specific scales had favorable psychometric properties, including reliability. General and specific victim blaming were significantly and positively correlated, whereas victim blaming and society blaming were not significantly correlated. Multiple regression analyses provided evidence of construct validity for the scales. All blaming variables were significantly related in the hypothesized directions to social distance, social responsibility, and discrimination (regarding persons with AIDS). The general and specific scales made significant and unique contributions. Implications for attribution theory and research are specified.     

Examining the Construct Validity of Mastery-Avoidance Achievement Goals: A Meta-Analysis

We used meta-analysis to obtain a comprehensive perspective on the construct validity of achievement goals, focusing on the most recent addition to the achievement goal framework, mastery-avoidance (Elliot & McGregor, 2001). Mastery-avoidance achievement goals positively correlated with need for achievement, perceived competence, competitiveness, interest, negative affect, and other achievement goals (mastery-approach, performance-approach, performance-avoidance) and negatively correlated with cognitive ability, help seeking, and performance. The correlations between mastery-avoidance and the other achievement goals were moderate. Thus, we conclude that mastery-avoidance is a conceptually and empirically distinct construct with unique antecedents and consequences and should be included in future studies on achievement goals.     

Moderators of the Relationship Between Cognitive Ability and Performance: General Versus Context–Specific Achievement Motivation1

Despite positing a multiplicative model of performance, 3 recent studies failed to find support for a theoretically meaningful interaction between cognitive ability and trait motivation in predicting performance. We suggest that it is important to consider that these studies used trait–motivation constructs that are general in nature, rather than context–specific. Yet, existing theory and research suggests that it may be beneficial to use trait–motivation constructs that are expressly contextual, especially when investigating a multiplicative performance model. This study, therefore, compared general versus context–specific achievement motivation as moderators of the relationship between cognitive ability and performance. The proposition that only context–specific achievement motivation should interact with cognitive ability in predicting performance was supported. Implications are discussed.     

Welfare and the Achievement of Goals

I defend the view that an individual's welfareis in one respect enhanced by the achievementof her goals, even when her goals are crazy,self-destructive, irrational or immoral. This``Unrestricted View' departs from familiartheories which take welfare to involve only theachievement of rational aims, or of goals whoseobjects are genuinely valuable, or of goalsthat are not grounded in bad reasons. I beginwith a series of examples, intended to showthat some of our intuitive judgments aboutwelfare incorporate distinctions that only theUnrestricted View can support. Then, I show howthe view can be incorporated into a broadertheory of welfare in ways that do not produceimplausible consequences. This in hand, Ifinish by providing a more philosophicalstatement of the Unrestricted View and the casein its favor, and respond to some objections.     

成就目标、社会目标、自我效能及学习成绩与学业求助的关系

本研究以152名初中二年级学生为被试,采用问卷法研究了成就目标、社会目标、自我效能及学习成绩与学业求助的关系。结果表明：(1)自我取向的成就目标的确可以区分出自我一趋向型目标和自我一逃避目标,它们对学业求助的影响模式是不同的,自我一逃避型目标对学业求助有更大的负面作用。(2)社会目标与学业求助有显著关系,支持本研究的假设。(3)自我效能低及学习成绩差的学生更不愿求助,支持脆弱假说。     

成就目标启动对风险偏好的调节作用

新近研究发现,目标可以在无意识的条件下被激活并自动地引导行为以达成目标,但其内部机制尚不清楚。本研究试图考察风险偏好是否受无意识目标调节。实验采用问卷作为启动刺激,分别启动被试追求成功的目标与避免失败的目标,并在收益框架下和损失框架下测量被试的风险偏好。结果发现：在收益框架下,受到追求成功目标启动的被试比受到避免失败目标启动的被试更加偏好风险;而在损失框架下,两组被试间未发现显著差异。上述结果表明自动激活的成就目标可以影响个体的风险偏好,使个体面对风险情境时能做出更合适的行为以达成目标,即对风险偏好的调节是无意识目标自动影响行为的途径之一。     

Investigating the Relationship Between Achievement Goals and Process Goals in Rugby Union Players

The present study investigated the relationship between achievement goal orientations and process goals in a sample of rugby union players. Participants were aged 14–45 years (M + SD: 24.31 + 6.02) and ranged from Club to National level. There were 78 males and 72 females with a mean of 9.17 years experience. Achievement goals were measured using an instrument developed by Harwood, Wilson, and Hardy (2002) Miller, M. B. 1995. Coefficient alpha: A basic introduction from the perspectives of classical test theory and structural equation modelling. Structural Equation Modelling, 2: 255–273. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar] that assesses Self-Directed Task, Self-Directed Ego, Social Approval Task, and Social Approval Ego Goal Orientations. Process goals were measured using a slightly adapted version of an instrument developed by Harwood (1997) Harwood, C. G. 1997. Pre-competition achievement goals within young sports performers, Unpublished PhD Thesis UK: Loughborough University.  [Google Scholar]. Self-Directed Task (7), Self-Directed Ego (5), Social Approval Task (6), and Social Approval Ego (2) had varying numbers of significant positive correlations with process goal variables. Stepwise regression analysis revealed that Self-Directed Task was the sole significant predictor for six of the seven process goal variables (β = .30 to .60). Those significant others who influence the achievement context should encourage high levels of Self-Directed Task and discourage high levels of Social Approval Ego goal orientation to promote a focus upon the processes of performance.     

Achievement Goals in Social Interactions: Learning with Mastery vs. Performance Goals

Little work has studied achievement goals in social interaction situations. The present experiment aimed at contributing to this matter by showing the potential of social interaction (in particular disagreement) to moderate the effects of achievement goals on learning. Participants were led to think they interacted with a partner, sharing opinions about a text that they were studying. Mastery and performance goals were manipulated. During the “interaction,” they received either disagreement or agreement from this bogus partner. Results showed that a condition in which mastery goals were induced led to better learning than a performance goal condition only when the partner disagreed. No differences between goal conditions were observed when the partner agreed. Implications for achievement goal research are discussed. Part of this work was conducted during Céline Darnon’s doctoral dissertation under the supervision of Fabrizio Butera, and was written during Céline Darnon’s post-doctorate at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA, thanks to a Fulbright fellowship.     

Achievement Goals,Feedback, and Task Performance

Prior research indicates that instructions to focus attention on learning versus performance and the nature of feedback provided have distinct implications for subsequent task performance. We first examined how assigned learning and performance goals and feedback valence interact to determine performance change. Individuals with learning goal instructions performed better after negative feedback but worse after positive feedback. In Study 2, we found that implicit theory, an individual difference that is antecedent to general goal orientation, interacted with learning/performance goal instructions to influence performance change after negative feedback. In both studies, goal instructions influenced performance attributions and affective states, but these variables did not mediate the effects of the goal instructions or performance feedback. We discuss the implications of these results for academic and employment settings.     

Goals and Everyday Problem Solving: Examining the Link between Age-Related Goals and Problem-Solving Strategy Use

ABSTRACT

Qualitative interviews on family and financial problems from 332 adolescents, young, middle-aged, and older adults, demonstrated that developmentally relevant goals predicted problem-solving strategy use over and above problem domain. Four focal goals concerned autonomy, generativity, maintaining good relationships with others, and changing another person. We examined both self- and other-focused problem-solving strategies. Autonomy goals were associated with self-focused instrumental problem solving and generative goals were related to other-focused instrumental problem solving in family and financial problems. Goals of changing another person were related to other-focused instrumental problem solving in the family domain only. The match between goals and strategies, an indicator of problem-solving adaptiveness, showed that young individuals displayed the greatest match between autonomy goals and self-focused problem solving, whereas older adults showed a greater match between generative goals and other-focused problem solving. Findings speak to the importance of considering goals in investigations of age-related differences in everyday problem solving.     

Self-compassion,Achievement Goals,and Coping with Academic Failure

Stress-buffering effects of high self-complexity can be explained by two different theoretical models. According to the affective spillover model (Linville, ), a large number of independent self-aspects prevents a generalization of affect after negative but also after positive events. According to the self-regulatory processes model, a large number of self-aspects promotes efficient self-regulation, which is restricted to negative events. Effects of negative and positive events on subsequent changes in depression were investigated in a prospective design. Having a large number of self-aspects was found to attenuate adverse effects of negative events on depression, irrespective of the distinctness of the self-aspects. No buffering effects were observed regarding the relation between positive events and depression. The self-regulatory processes model also predicts that for people with a large number of self-aspects, an increasing number of positive experiences should be generated in response to high levels of stress. This prediction was tested and confirmed in a second part of the study.     

Achievement Goals in Educational Contexts: A Social Psychology Perspective

Research on achievement goals usually defines mastery goals as the desire to acquire knowledge, and performance goals as the desire to outperform (or not to underperform) others. Educational contexts are most of the time social contexts, involving various persons and groups, of various hierarchical positions, and various cultural and ideological contexts. Surprisingly, most research in the achievement goal field has been conducted at an individual level of analysis. In the present paper, we will review the social consequences and antecedents of goal endorsement. This research indicates that goals strongly affect the way one behaves with co‐learners. Moreover, it suggests that more than merely individual dispositions, goals reflect the social relation students have with other persons, institutions, and with the society to which they belong. We conclude this paper by setting an agenda for future achievement goal research.     

Motivational Climate and Achievement Goals at the Situational Level of Generality

Based on the rule of compatibility, according to which motivational climate scales should capture both the objective environment and whether it activates particular goals, a measure is presented assessing achievement goals and climate perceptions in physical education at a particular point of time. In Study 1, students completed the questionnaires following an experimental manipulation where eight classes had task-involving drills (n = 185 students), eight classes had ego-involving drills (n = 174 students) and nine classes (n = 221) served as the control group. Study 2 was an intervention consisting of nine consecutive physical education lessons. Students in the intervention group (n = 174) pursued mastery goals and control group students (n = 181) participated in typical classes. Questionnaires were completed prior to the intervention and every third lesson. The structure of the model consisting of four achievement goals (mastery, performance approach, performance avoidance, and social approval) and four perceptions of teachers' emphasis on these goals was satisfactory and superior to the structure of all alternative models. Factor correlation results and the relationship of the current scales with intrinsic-extrinsic motivation and amotivation provided evidence of convergent and divergent validity for the measures. Results from multi-sample confirmatory factor analyses supported the invariance of factor loadings across samples and the invariance of covariances for the goals construct. In both studies, the differences that emerged between groups provided additional support to the construct validity of the present scales. Practitioners interested in the effects of teaching and coaching on motivational climate and achievement goal adoption could acquire useful feedback using these scales.     

Imagining Success: Multiple Achievement Goals and the Effectiveness of Imagery

Imagery (richly imagining carrying out a task successfully) is a popular performance-enhancement tool in many domains. This experiment sought to test whether pursuing two achievement goals (vs. one) benefits performance after an imagery exercise. We examined mastery goals (aiming to improve skill level) and performance goals (aiming to outperform others) among 65 tennis players who were assigned to a mastery goal condition, a performance goal condition, or a mastery goal and performance goal condition. After reading instructions for a service task, which included the goal manipulation, participants completed 20 tennis services. They then completed an imagery exercise and, finally, completed another 20 services. Postimagery service performance was better in the dual-goal condition than in the other conditions.     

The Joint Impact of Achievement Goals and Performance Feedback on Information Giving

This research examined how performance feedback moderates the effects of individuals' achievement goals on information exchange when carrying out a novel and complex task. Experiment 1 demonstrated that mastery goal individuals who received positive performance feedback gave less modified information about their task performance to their exchange partner relative to both mastery goal individuals who received negative feedback and performance goal individuals (who received either negative or positive feedback). In Experiment 2, we found that relative to performance goals, mastery goals led to a stronger reciprocity orientation and a weaker exploitation orientation. Also, mastery goal individuals provided information of higher quality than performance goal individuals, thereby explaining the observed findings in Experiment 1.     

The Accuracy of Behavioral Intention Versus Behavioral Expectation for Predicting Behavioral Goals

Researchers have largely overlooked the distinction between behavioral intention and behavioral expectation as predictors of one's own behavior. Moreover, the distinction between purely volitional behavior and behavioral goals, the latter of which may be impeded by such nonvolitional factors as lack of ability, lack of opportunity, habit, and environmental impediments, has also been blurred in the literature. Behavioral expectation is theorized to be based on a cognitive appraisal of one's behavioral intention and all other behavioral determinants of which one is aware. The present study argues and gives evidence that, although behavioral expectation and behavioral intention may have similar predictive accuracy for volitional behaviors, behavioral expectation is adequate, but behavioral intention may be inadequate for prediction of the accomplishment of behavioral goals.     

A Meta-Analysis of the Impact of Situationally Induced Achievement Goals on Task Performance

The purpose of this research was to meta-analyze studies which experimentally induced an achievement goal state to examine its causal effect on the individual’s performance at the task at hand, and to investigate the moderator effects of feedback anticipation and time pressure. The data set comprised 19 papers, 79 individual effect sizes, and 3,482 participants. Performance measures represented task performance across a variety of tasks. The findings indicate that relative to avoidance goals (either performance-avoidance goals or mastery-avoidance goals), approach goals (either mastery-approach goals or performance-approach goals) enhance task performance. Furthermore, relative to performance-approach goals, mastery-approach goals lead to better performance, particularly when individuals do not anticipate feedback and when there is no time pressure. Implications and future directions for research are discussed.     

成就目标、学业情绪及学业成绩的关系研究述评

成就目标(Achievement Goal)是个体对从事成就活动的目的或意义的知觉,学业情绪(Academic Emotion)是指与学业学习、班级指导和学业成就直接相关的各种情绪。成就目标与学业情绪相互作用,即成就目标会影响学生的学业情绪,学业情绪反过来也会影响成就目标。同时,成就目标和学业情绪对学生的学业成绩具有综合预测作用,学业情绪在成就目标和学业成绩间起中介作用。未来研究的方向主要在于深入探讨成就目标与更细分的学业情绪的关系,以及成就目标、学业情绪和成绩之间的相互作用。