Judgment stability and pseudorecognition of random and patterned configurations

Thirty six simple patterns were judged as “random” or “patterned” by adult Ss. Category judgments were consistent whether Ss were told that 1/4, 1/2, or 3/4 of the patterns were random or if no proportion was specified. In a second experiment, Ss viewed a series of slides previously judged patterned followed by a recognition series with two additional patterned slides inserted in a series of otherwise random slides. Although slides were never labeled random or patterned, Ss made the most false recognitions for the two patterned slides. In another condition where random and patterned slides were reversed, most false recognitions were made for the two random slides. Both Gamer’s notion of hypothetical set size and an analysis of balanced elements fit the results, but the adequacy of both hypotheses can be questioned when applied to previous results with more complex patterns.     

Detection and scaling of statistical differences between visual textures

Stochastically textured patterns were used to investigate the sensitivity of Ss to differences in the statistical distributions of locally defined properties of element density and shape. The results of the study indicate that when the textures were most structured, in terms of their variance, Ss were most accurate at detecting dissimilarities between pairs of patterns. Ss also rated the similarity of the statistical distributions of elements of patterns differing in local properties. Multidimensional scaling analysis of the ratings showed two dimensions, representing monotonic orderings of the stimuli.     

Figural goodness and the predictability of figural elements

All 126 patterns composed of five dots distributed over the cells of a 3 by 3 matrix were examined for the predictability of their elements. The predictability of a given dot in a given pattern was measured as the percentage of Ss who indicated that dot as one “implied or suggested” by the subpattern composed of the remaining four dots of the pattern. The dots comprising a figurally good five-dot pattern were generally more predictable, one from the others, than the dots comprising a poor pattern. This finding accords with the Gestaltist conception of a good figure as one whose elements are well organized, and it is the state of affairs required by Garner’s hypothesis that better figures are perceived to have fewer alternatives than poorer figures. A mechanism mediating the prediction of an element of a pattern from the other elements was suggested.     

Age differences in learning serial patterns: direct versus indirect measures

Adult age differences in learning and retention of a nonverbal sequence were examined using the serial reaction-time task of Nissen and Bullemer (1987), with 20 younger and 20 older Ss. An asterisk appeared in one of 4 spatial locations, and the Ss responded with a corresponding key press. The first 4 blocks each contained 10 repetitions of a 10- or 16-element spatial sequence, and the 5th block contained a random sequence. The difference between response time on Blocks 5 and 4 served as an indirect measure of pattern learning. The direct measure was accuracy in a final generation block in which the Ss predicted which location would appear next. Results were similar to those with verbal materials; the indirect measure revealed age similarity for patterns of both lengths, but the direct measure yielded age differences favoring the young. For both ages and types of measures, the long patterns led to poorer learning than did the short patterns.     

Encoding differences in recognition and recall

After practice consisting of the free recall of five blocked categorized lists, Ss were presented a sixth list and then unexpectedly tested for recognition. After practice at recognition of the same five lists, Ss were unexpectedly tested for recall following presentation of the sixth test. Recognition performance was superior when items were encoded in anticipation of a recognition test. Intracategory serial position functions for Ss anticipating recall tests were different from those anticipating recognition tests regardless of the retention test employed. The role of control processes in recall and recognition testing is discussed     

Primary control and the consistency of interpersonal behaviour across different situations

Recent findings from person–situation studies suggest that primary control is a major factor underlying cross-situational consistency of individual behaviour. To provide evidence, we studied behaviour reflecting primary control in two modes: self-reports and observations of overt behaviour. Study I examined self-reports of 147 Ss in 15 interpersonal situations. In study II, 25 Ss were observed during role playing in five situations. The analysis focused on the degree to which Ss maintain consistent patterns of behaviour across different situations. Both studies revealed considerable degrees of consistency, thus confirming our conjecture. In the discussion attention is paid to the dispositional nature of primary control and the connections with secondary control. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Individual response patterns in binary choice tasks with nondiscriminable stimuli

The present experiment sought to determine whether individual Ss tend to employ repeatedly the same response patterns in binary choice tasks containing nondiscriminable stimuli and, if so, whether the response sequences when used to constructstimulus sequences improve the performance of other choice tasks. Information and frequency analyses of the response sequences of 48 Ss showed moderate consistency of patterning within a light and within a tone task. Performance of a card task following the light and tone tasks was closely related to the task (light or tone) from which the stimulus sequence was obtained. The frequency analysis showed that repetition patterns were preferred by most Ss but at the expense of alternation responses. The presentation of reinforcement in the card task did not improve performance over that observed in the light and tone tasks.     

Individual response patterns in binary choice tasks with nondiscriminable stimuli

The present experiment sought to determine whether individual Ss tend to employ repeatedly the same response patterns in binary choice tasks containing nondiscriminable stimuli and, if so, whether the response sequences when used to construct stimulus sequences improve the performance of other choice tasks. Information and frequency analyses of the response sequences of 48 Ss showed moderate consistency of patterning within a light and within a tone task. Performance of a card task following the light and tone tasks was closely related to the task (light or tone) from which the stimulus sequence was obtained. The frequency analysis showed that repetition patterns were preferred by most Ss but at the expense of alternation responses. The presentation of reinforcement in the card task did not improve performance over that observed in the light and tone tasks.     

Distribution of practice and the Müller-Lyer illusion1

Two experiments were conducted to determine the influence of distribution of practice on the decrement of the Muller-Lyer illusion. In the first experiment, Ss judged the illusion figure 100 times per session in five sessions separated by intervals of seven days. In the second, Ss judged the figure 200 limes in a single session. The data were compared with those from an earlier experiment (Dewar, 1967) in which Ss judged the figure 100 times per session in five sessions separated by 24 h. In all three experiments two configurations of the illusion were used-one with a 60° angle between the obI ique lines and one with a 120° ang Ie. The distribution of practice did not influence the decrement of the illusion for the 120° figure. The only effect of this variable was to produce a more rapid practice decrement for the 60° figure when sessions of 100 trials were separated by a 24-h intewal.     

The effects of stimulus structure and familiarity on same-different comparison

It was hypothesized that performance in the same-different comparison task is based on two modes of processing: (1) structural processes that organize the detailed parts of a stimulus into a well-formed whole, and (2)analytic processes that decompose the stimulus into features. This hypothesis was supported, but with the unexpected finding of individual differences in the mode of processing underlying “same” responses. Those Ss in the “same” condition whose reaction times were faster for symmetrical than for asymmetrical patterns supported the hypothesis for structural processes. The remaining Ss in the “same” condition, as well as all the Ss in the “different” condition, were unaffected by symmetry. These Ss supported the hypothesis for analytic processes. Although familiarity effects were obtained for both structural and analytic Ss, the rotation of the familiar patterns into an unfamiliar orientation virtually eliminated familiarity effects for the structural Ss, but left them intact for analytic Ss.     

Pattern recognition and eye-movement parameters

Pattern perception was studied by recording eye movements while Ss visually scanned nine simultaneously presented patterns of asterisks for target patterns. Pattern parameters studied were: similarity of target patterns to non-target patterns (absolute difference in the number of elements), number of target elements, and frequency of targets. Systematic correlation between the first two pattern parameters and eyemovement parameters were found. Mean duration and mean number of fixations on targets and also on non-targets increased with increased similarity. Mean duration and mean number of fixations increased on targets with an increase in the number of target elements. Non-target patterns were perceived more auicfely than targets. Fixations of longer duration were required to perceive the original target than to identify the other target patterns subsequently. The eye-movement results provide the basis for developing inferences about higher order processing of visual stimuli.     

A Comparative Study of the Intelligence of Jewish Preschool Boys and Girls of Orthodox Parentage

Children aged 2-51/2 to 5-1/2 were pretrained on two three-choice simple discrimination problems presented consecutively, which were followed by training on 10 unique oddity sets. Transfer data were obtained from those Ss who learned the oddity problems by presenting five new oddity sets.

All three Groups learned the second pretraining problem more quickly than the first, although on both problems the two older Groups learned faster than the youngest Group. Nearly all the Ss learned to select the correct stimuli on the 10 three-choice oddity sets. Sixty-four percent of the children between 2-1/2 and 4-1/2 evidenced transfer to the five new oddity sets, indicating comprehension of the oddity relationship and the ability to respond on the basis of this higher-order solution. This finding is contrary to that predicted by contemporary theories of cognitive development (e.g., 3, 8).

The remaining Ss had either learned to choose the odd stimulus, but were unable to maintain a relational choice when presented with new sets, or solved the original discrimination by applying specific solutions to a 10-problem simultaneous three-choice discrimination problem.     

Is there a general factor of preference for complexity?

It has been assumed that preferences for different aspects of complexity in visual patterns are intercorrelated. Evidence purporting to demonstrate this was examined and found to be inconclusive. The preferences of 111 Ss using three sets of patterns showed no correlation between preference for asymmetry, for multiplicity, and for heterogeneity of elements.     

Stimules configuration in selective attention tasks

The possibility that perceptual configuration of stimulus elements impairs the ability to attend selectively to individual elements was tested with two-element stimuli, constructed by placing two curved lines in close proximity. Ss rapidly classified series of these stimuli which could differ on both elements or on only one with the second held constant. It was hypothesized that if the two elements formed a configuration, then Ss should have difficulty attending selectively to the element relevant for classification while filtering information from the other element. This result was obtained in one experiment with both stimulus elements oriented vertically, and it is concluded that these stimuli were perceived as unanalyzed, nominally related shapes. In another experiment, with one stimulus element oriented horizontally, selective attention to the relevant element was possible.     

Eye fixations in prediction of recognition and recall

Eye fixations were recorded at viewing of picture-label stimuli presented under either recall or recognition instructions; both retention tests were administered. Ss performed substantially better on the retention test of which they were informed, indicating differential encoding of the same stimuli in anticipation of test type. There was no correlation between recognition and recall of items, evidence that different information from the encoded stimuli was utilized in performing each test. Encoding strategies had no effect on how Ss regarded the stimuli, but viewing patterns were related to memory performance: More word fixations was associated with better verbal recall, while fewer picture fixations was associated with better recall and with better picture recognition.     

Noise methods in pattern perception

This experiment investigated 4 methods of inducing visual noise at 7 levels of noise. Fortysix Ss were presented 4800 sets of 3 pattems, with the task of judging which of 2 noisy patterns was more similar to the prototype pattern. The noisy patterns were generated by adding, moving, deleting or both adding and deleting elements of the prototype. All possible comparisons of each noise method were made at each noise level and the results plotted. The results show that the various methods of introducing noise do not produce identical results, and that the similarity assessment is dependent on noise koel. Explanations are offered to account for the results.     

Stereoacuity for oscillating targets exposed through apertures of various horizontal ex tents

This experiment assesses the separate effects of several interrelated temporal variables on binocular depth discrimination as measured in a two-rod test apparatus. Equidistance settings were obtained from two Ss for a black target oscillating in a frontal plane at each of five velocities, and viewed against a constant illuminated background (1.20 log td) through 29 different horizontal apertures. Combinations of target velocities and aperture sizes were selected to produce a series of eight constant target viewing times (0.15, 0.25, 0.40, 0.50, 0.80, 1.00, 1.50, and 2.00 sec). Both the constant and the variable errors of the equidistance settings were analyzed in terms of the relative deleterious effects produced by increased target velocity and reduced horizontal aperture. The deleterious effects were discussed with respect to the contribution of presumed loss in neural integration for the changing luminous-energy distribution patterns on each retina, energy losses occurring in each pair of stimulated binocular retinal elements along the path of image movement, decreases in target viewing time, and reduction in the number of binocular retinal elements being stimulated.     

Modeling a tactile sensory register

A detailed analysis was made of the data of a previous paper by Bliss et al (1966). That paper describes a series of experiments, in which 2 to 12 simultaneous air-jet stimuli were presented on the 24 phalanges of both hands. In addition, new data from an early blind S, whose performance was significantly better, is compared to the data of the original four Ss. Memory properties of all five Ss estimated by whole- and partial-reporting techniques gave evidence for a tactile short-term memory that (1) has a duration of a few seconds, (2) varies considerably in size (but not in temporal characteristics) for different Ss, and (3) has a capacity limited by spatial resolution. Tactile masking did not account for the limited spatial resolution, but a stimulus-spreading (or lateral-excitation) model did.     

The role of gradients of binocular disparity in Gibson’s theory of space perception

Adult Ss made distance bisection judgments over a surface on which the packing density of the texture elements was progressively increased along the Ss’ line of sight from one end of the surface to the other. Distance judgments were significantly different under monocular and binocular conditions of vision; however, with binocular vision, Ss did not detect the deformation in the texture on the surface. This result does not support predictions derived from Gibson, Purdy, and Lawrence (1955) concerning the role of gradients of binocular disparity in Gibson’s psychophysical theory of space perception.     

Single linear ordering versus multiple discrepant orderings in the cognitive representation of social structures

Previous studies have assumed that people have a predilection for single linear orderings, of which status congruence is a special case. Eighty-two subjects were run in a two-stage experiment to examine preference for linear orderings and whether single or multiple discrepant orderings are preferred when 1 instead of having to learn, subjects freely construct social structures, and 2 the material they are presented is more specified and less simplified than is usually the case in cognitive bias studies. In the first stage Ss were presented with sets of five individual characteristic dimensions, of which three were inherently orderable. Their task was to attribute one characteristic from each dimension to each of five fictitious persons. In the second stage, Ss were asked, for three types of influence (professional, political and cultural), to build an influence structure among the five persons constructed in the first stage. In Stage 1, linear ordering was used for three of the five dimensions. Two of these dimensions used a single ordering, while the third was only weakly related to the first two. In Stage 2, largely transitive but incomplete relations of influence were established, based on a salary-occupational hierarchy. The completeness of the relation depended on the nature of the influence.