The Contribution of Individualism vs. Collectivism to Cross-national Differences in Display Rules

Despite the fact that display rules are an important concept of theories of emotion and contemporary psychology, relatively little cross-cultural research has been done on them. This study examined cross-national differences in display rules of emotion, and investigated the degree to which those differences could be attributed to Individualism and Collectivism (IC) measured on the individual level. Participants in the US, Japan, South Korea, and Russia completed a comprehensive measure of display rules assessing behavioral tendencies for seven universal emotions in four social contexts in two rating domains. They also completed Matsumoto et al .'s (1997) Individualism–Collectivism Interpersonal Assessment Inventory. The results confirmed the existence of cross-national differences in IC and display rules, and indicated that IC and display rules were correlated. Significant differences between the countries remained even after IC was controlled for, and effect size analyses comparing cross-national differences when IC was controlled and not indicated that IC accounted for approximately 30% of the effect sizes related to cross-national differences. This study is unique in that it not only used the concept of IC to explain and predict differences; it also quantitatively assessed the degree to which IC contributed to those differences. These findings are discussed in terms of the utility of the IC concept to understanding cross-cultural and cross-national differences in emotion.     

The flanker compatibility effect as a function of visual angle, attentional focus, visual transients, and perceptual load: a search for boundary conditions

When subjects must respond to a relevant center letter and ignore irrelevant flanking letters, the identities of the flankers produce a response compatibility effect, indicating that they are processed semantically at least to some extent. Because this effect decreases as the separation between target and flankers increases, the effect appears to result from imperfect early selection (attenuation). In the present experiments, several features of the focused attention paradigm were examined, in order to determine whether they might produce the flanker compatibility effect by interfering with the operation of an early selective mechanism. Specifically, the effect might be produced because the paradigm requires subjects to (1) attend exclusively to stimuli within a very small visual angle, (2) maintain a long-term attentional focus on a constant display location, (3) focus attention on an empty display location, (4) exclude onset-transient flankers from semantic processing, or (5) ignore some of the few stimuli in an impoverished visual field. The results indicate that none of these task features is required for semantic processing of unattended stimuli to occur. In fact, visual angle is the only one of the task features that clearly has a strong influence on the size of the flanker compatibility effect. The invariance of the flanker compatibility effect across these conditions suggests that the mechanism for early selection rarely, if ever, completely excludes unattended stimuli from semantic analysis. In addition, it shows that selective mechanisms are relatively insensitive to several factors that might be expected to influence them, thereby supporting the view that spatial separation has a special status for visual selective attention.     

A conceptual category effect in visual search: O as letter or as digit

Evidence is presented for a processing mechanism in visual recognition that depends upon how the stimulus array is conceptually categorized rather than upon its physical characteristics. Ss had to detect a letter or digit target in a field of letters or digits. When target and field were of the same category, reaction time increased with display size. When target and field category differed, reaction times were independent of display size. This category effect held even for the ambiguous target character 0 that yielded reaction time functions appropriate to how it was specified prior to presentation: as “zero” or as “ō.”     

The cognitive loci of the display and task-relevant set size effects on distractor interference: Evidence from a dual-task paradigm

The congruency effect of a task-irrelevant distractor has been found to be modulated by task-relevant set size and display set size. The present study used a psychological refractory period (PRP) paradigm to examine the cognitive loci of the display set size effect (dilution effect) and the task-relevant set size effect (perceptual load effect) on distractor interference. A tone discrimination task (Task 1), in which a response was made to the pitch of the target tone, was followed by a letter discrimination task (Task 2) in which different types of visual target display were used. In Experiment 1, in which display set size was manipulated to examine the nature of the display set size effect on distractor interference in Task 2, the modulation of the congruency effect by display set size was observed at both short and long stimulus-onset asynchronies (SOAs), indicating that the display set size effect occurred after the target was selected for processing in the focused attention stage. In Experiment 2, in which task-relevant set size was manipulated to examine the nature of the task-relevant set size effect on distractor interference in Task 2, the effects of task-relevant set size increased with SOA, suggesting that the target selection efficiency in the preattentive stage was impaired with increasing task-relevant set size. These results suggest that display set size and task-relevant set size modulate distractor processing in different ways.     

Activation and inhibition of stimulus features in conjunction search

Two visual search experiments were conducted to examine how activation of target-relevant features and inhibition of target-irrelevant features are involved in conjunction search. The hypothesis was that if an excitatory mechanism is involved, it should be revealed as facilitation when a target and distractors are repeated in two successive displays. If an inhibitory mechanism is involved, suppression should be obtained when distractor features from one display determine the target in the following display. The results of Experiment 1 showed that facilitation was observed consistently across two set sizes (5 and 9), whereas suppression was obtained only with larger set size (9). This pattern of results was replicated and extended in Experiment 2 with different set size. It seems that both excitatory and inhibitory mechanisms are involved in conjunction search. The excitatory mechanism seems to play a role in conjunction search regardless of search difficulty, whereas the inhibitory mechanism might play a role only when set size is larger.     

Visual detection in relation to display size and redundancy of critical elements I

Visual detection was studied in relation to displays of discrete elements, randomly selected consonant letters, distributed in random subsets of cells of a matrix, the S being required on each trial to indicate only which member of a predesignated pair of critical elements was present in a given display. Experimental variables were number of elements per display and number of redundant critical elements per display. Estimates of the number of elements effectively processed by a S during a 50 ms. exposure increased with display size, but not in the manner that would be expected if the S sampled a fixed proportion of the elements present in a display of given area. Test-retest data indicated substantial correlations over long intervals of time in the particular elements sampled by a S from a particular display. Efficiencies of detection with redundant critical elements were very close to those expected on the hypothesis of constant sample size over trials for any given display size and were relatively invariant with respect to distance between critical elements.     

权变视角下的情绪劳动:调节变量及其作用机制

调节变量是近年来情绪劳动研究关注的重点问题之一。实证研究显示,反映员工个体特征、工作情境特征的多组变量以及文化情境对情绪劳动效应具有显著的调节作用。权变视角下的情绪劳动研究发现:(1)展现规则在组织、行业、文化三个不同水平影响个体在工作场所的情绪表达;(2)表层扮演潜在的消极效应可以借助个体内在的保护机制或通过组织管理干预被削弱、消除,甚至是转化为积极的力量;(3)深层扮演的积极效应具有较高的跨人群、跨情境稳定性;(4)文化情境对情绪劳动作用过程具有重要的约束作用。在一定条件下,情绪劳动要求、情绪劳动行为都可以成为有益于员工的组织生活要素。     

Detection performance in pop-out tasks: nonmonotonic changes with display size and eccentricity

We carried out three experiments to investigate detection performance in pop-out tasks and analysed how performance varied as a function of display size (number of elements) and retinal eccentricity of the target. Results showed that when display size was increased from 2 to 81 elements performance first decreased and then increased (replicating Sagi and Julesz, 1987 Spatial Vision 2 39-49). Performance variations differed as a function of eccentricity and often were more pronounced in the periphery than in the foveal area. This retinal-eccentricity influence suggests that processes underlying detection performance in small display sizes are different from those in large display sizes. One should be careful when using the variation of display size as an instrument to analyse visual-search processes because this analysis could be based on a comparison between non-equivalent conditions.     

Categorization and identification of simultaneous targets.

Early and late selection theories of visual attention disagree about whether identification occurs before or after selection. Studies showing the category effect, i.e., the time to detect a letter is hardly affected by the number of digits present in the display, are taken as evidence for late selection theories since these studies suggest parallel identification of all items in the display. As an extension of previous studies, in the present study two categorically different targets were presented simultaneously among a variable number of nontargets. Subjects were shown brief displays of two target letters among either 2, 4 or 6 nontarget digits. Subjects responded 'same' when the two letters were identical and 'different' otherwise. Since the 'same-different' response reflects the combined outcome of the simultaneous targets, late-selection theory predicts that the time to match the target letters is independent of the number of nontarget digits. Alternatively, early-selection theory predicts a linear increase of reaction time with display size since the presence of more than one target disrupts parallel preattentive processing, leading to a serial search through all items in the display. The results provide evidence for the early-selection view since reaction time increased linearly with the number of categorically different nontargets. A control experiment revealed that none of the alternative explanations could account for the display size effect.     

Local processes in preattentive feature detection.

Sagi and Julesz (1987) claimed that for a target to be detected preattentively, it must be within some small critical distance of a nontarget. The independent effects of separation and display size, which were confounded in the Sagi and Julesz experiments, were examined. Experiments 1 and 2 revealed that in tasks requiring search for a color-defined target, target-nontarget separation had no effect on reaction time (RT). Display size, however, was inversely related to RT. Experiment 3 ruled out the possibility that the decreasing function of RT with display size was due to arousal caused by higher display luminance. When nontarget grouping was inhibited, (Exp. 4) it was found that RT no longer decreased with increasing display size. This suggests that nontarget grouping may have been the cause of the improved performance at larger display sizes. Experiments 5 and 6 extended the results to line segments, the stimuli used by Sagi and Julesz.     

视觉工作记忆内容对视觉搜索的影响

采用记忆任务与视觉搜索任务相结合的范式,以二维对称图形为材料,探讨视觉工作记忆内容对视觉搜索的影响。结果发现：（1）不同视觉工作记忆内容条件下的反应时存在显著差异,无效信息条件下的反应时显著长于有效信息条件下的反应时。（2）不同搜索序列条件下反应时差异显著,复杂序列条件下的反应时显著长于简单序列条件。结果表明,视觉工作记忆中的信息内容影响视觉搜索效率,其变化趋势不受序列大小的影响,结果支持偏向竞争模型。     

Size does matter: Women mentally rotate large objects faster than men

Performance in a computerized “mental rotation” task was measured in groups of males and females while they rotated Shepard‐Metzler‐like cube assemblies on either a standard laptop screen (size = 36 cm) or on a large display wall (584 cm) where the stimuli appeared at considerably larger sizes and within a much wider field of view than that typically used in most spatial tasks. Males and females did not differ significantly in performance in the standard size condition with regards to response time but females performed faster than males in the large display condition. Males were also found to be significantly more accurate than females, regardless of display. We found no sign of trading accuracy for speed for either of the sexes or screen size conditions. We surmise that such an effect may be due to differences in task‐solving strategies between the sexes, where a holistic strategy – which may be preferred by males is negatively affected by large object sizes, whereas a piecemeal approach, that may be preferred by females, is virtually unaffected by display size.     

汉语音节累积词频对同音字听觉词汇表征的激活作用

汉语同音字音节的累积词频是同音单字词的具体词频之和, 即音节作为词被听到的频数, 也称为音节词频。它对词汇通达的作用还没获得一致看法。本文探讨听觉词汇通达中同音字表征的激活如何受累积词频的影响, 构成累积词频的具体词频和同音字数又会在其中起何作用。研究采用跨通道的音-字同音判断范式和配套的协方差分析分离出听觉的词汇表征激活作用。实验1固定同音字数, 同时变化累积词频和具体词频(其中具体高、低频同时也是同音字族内的高、低频), 结果发现具体词频的提高对表征激活有积极作用; 累积词频的提高仅在错误率上产生微弱的抑制作用, 而这个微弱作用可以归结为同音字族内高频字表征的激活对低频字表征的抑制。实验2固定具体词频, 同时变化累积词频和同音字数, 结果发现同音字数增加对表征激活产生抑制, 没有发现累积词频的作用。两个实验的结果说明, 音节累积词频对同音字的听觉词汇表征激活不起确定作用, 能够起作用的是同音字族内的具体词频和同音字数; 但同音字数变化的抑制作用仅在具体词频不变时才发生, 因此起决定作用的是同音字族内高频字表征激活和低频字表征抑制的机制。     

Visual motion interferes with tactile motion perception

Previous studies have demonstrated that visual apparent motion can alter the judgment of auditory apparent motion. We investigated the effect of visual apparent motion on judgments of the direction of tactile apparent motion. When visual motion was presented at the same time as, but in a direction opposite to, tactile motion, accuracy in judging the direction of tactile apparent motion was substantially reduced. This reduction in performance is referred to as 'the congruency effect'. Similar effects were observed when the visual display was placed either near to the tactile display or at some distance from the tactile display (experiment 1). In experiment 2, the relative alignment between the visual and tactile directions of motion was varied. The size of the congruency effect was similar at 0 degrees and 45 degrees alignments but much reduced at a 90 degrees alignment. In experiment 3, subjects made confidence ratings of their judgments of the direction of the tactile motion. The results indicated that the congruency effect was not due to subjects being unsure of the direction of motion and being forced to guess. In experiment 4, static visual stimuli were shown to have no effect on the judgments of direction of the tactile stimuli. The extent to which the congruency effect reflects capture effects and is the result of perceptual versus post-perceptual processes is discussed.     

Display size effects in visual search: Analyses of reaction time distributions as mixtures

In a reanalysis of data from Cousineau and Shiffrin (2004) and two new visual search experiments, we used a likelihood ratio test to examine the full distributions of reaction time (RT) for evidence that the display size effect is a mixture-type effect that occurs on only a proportion of trials, leaving RT in the remaining trials unaffected, as is predicted by serial self-terminating search models. Experiment 1 was a reanalysis of Cousineau and Shiffrin's data, for which a mixture effect had previously been established by a bimodal distribution of RTs, and the results confirmed that the likelihood ratio test could also detect this mixture. Experiment 2 applied the likelihood ratio test within a more standard visual search task with a relatively easy target/distractor discrimination, and Experiment 3 applied it within a target identification search task within the same types of stimuli. Neither of these experiments provided any evidence for the mixture-type display size effect predicted by serial self-terminating search models. Overall, these results suggest that serial self-terminating search models may generally be applicable only with relatively difficult target/distractor discriminations, and then only for some participants. In addition, they further illustrate the utility of analysing full RT distributions in addition to mean RT.     

Representational momentum in aviation

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of expertise on motion anticipation. We conducted 2 experiments in which novices and expert pilots viewed simulated aircraft landing scenes. The scenes were interrupted by the display of a black screen and then started again after a forward or backward shift. The participant's task was to determine whether the moving scene had been shifted forward or backward. A forward misjudgment of the final position of the moving scene was interpreted as a representational momentum (RM) effect. Experiment 1 showed that an RM effect was detected only for experts. The lack of motion anticipation on the part of novices is a surprising result for the RM literature. It could be related to scene unfamiliarity, encoding time, or shift size. Experiment 2 was run with novices only. It was aimed at testing the potential impact of 2 factors on the RM effect: scene encoding time and shift size. As a whole, the results showed that encoding time and shift size are important factors in anticipation processes in realistic dynamic situations.     

Infants’ ability to respond to depth from the retinal size of human faces: Comparing monocular and binocular preferential-looking

To examine sensitivity to pictorial depth cues in young infants (4 and 5 months-of-age), we compared monocular and binocular preferential looking to a display on which two faces were equidistantly presented and one was larger than the other, depicting depth from the size of human faces. Because human faces vary little in size, the correlation between retinal size and distance can provide depth information. As a result, adults perceive a larger face as closer than a smaller one. Although binocular information for depth provided information that the faces in our display were equidistant, under monocular viewing, no such information was provided. Rather, the size of the faces indicated that one was closer than the other. Infants are known to look longer at apparently closer objects. Therefore, we hypothesized that infants would look longer at a larger face in the monocular than in the binocular condition if they perceived depth from the size of human faces. Because the displays were identical in the two conditions, any difference in looking-behavior between monocular and binocular viewing indicated sensitivity to depth information. Results showed that 5-month-old infants preferred the larger, apparently closer, face in the monocular condition compared to the binocular condition when static displays were presented. In addition, when presented with a dynamic display, 4-month-old infants showed a stronger ‘closer’ preference in the monocular condition compared to the binocular condition. This was not the case when the faces were inverted. These results suggest that even 4-month-old infants respond to depth information from a depth cue that may require learning, the size of faces.     

父母支持对大学生人际适应性的影响:情绪智力的中介作用

本研究旨在考察父母支持、大学生情绪智力对其人际适应性的影响。以223名大学生为被试,采用问卷调查法对其父母支持、情绪智力与人际适应性的数据进行收集分析。结果显示:(1)父母支持与大学生人际适应性相关显著,父母的肯定价值对于他们的人际互动性解释力最强;(2)大学生情绪智力能够正向预测其人际适应性,情绪感知与其人际认知性的相关性较高;(3)大学生情绪智力在父母支持与人际适应性之间起着部分中介作用。     

Interocular Delay Produces Depth in Subjectively Moving Noise Patterns

Brief apparent motion sequences were introduced into a dynamic visual dot display by spatially shifting selected dots between successive frames. This causes the display to look as if it is drifting continuously in one direction. When such a display is observed with an interocular delay the drifting dots appear to be displaced in depth, even though there is no conventional retinal disparity in the display. We found that the magnitude of this depth shift increased with the duration of the apparent motion sequences. With sequences of five or more frames duration the depth effect was very similar to that which would have been predicted with a continuously moving target. With briefer sequences the size of the depth effect decreased rapidly. We suggest that apparent motion cascades form the basis of Tyler's dynamic visual noise stereophenomenon, and we question his “random spatial disparity” hypothesis.     

Programmed control of aimed movements revisited the role of target visibility and symmetry

Reaction time prior to starting a 2-mm amplitude aimed movement was studied as a function to target size and experimental procedure. Consistent with a report by Klapp, choice reaction time increased as target size decreased when the visual signal that initiated the reaction time interval also indicated which of two targets was to be hit. This result implies response programming during the reaction time interval, with more programming time for slower movements to smaller targets. By contrast, in a simple reaction time procedure, there was no effect of target size on reaction time, suggesting that the response can be programmed in advance when the appropriate target is precued. This provided a control for speed-accuracy trade-off, supporting the programming interpretation of the choice reaction time result. In another condition in which both targets could be viewed while waiting for the auditory signal that initiated the reaction time interval and indicated which target to hit, choice reaction time was independent of target size provided that both possible targets on each trial were of the same size. The overall results suggest that response programs include both spatial and temporal information, and that parallel programming of different spatial goals is possible provided that the responses are of the same duration.