The computer revolution in psychometrics

Summary We have said that psychometric methods involving algorithms are completely objective—at least they are if the algorithm is in the form of a program for a digital computer. These objective procedures need Monte Carlo and other computer runs to determine their properties, but so do many equation-oriented techniques. The objective algorithms are flexible but not flaccid. They offer a way of dealing with complexities that formerly seemed beyond our grasp. As the computer revolution continues in psychometrics, we can expect objective algorithmic methods to become the rule rather than the exception.Presidential address delivered at the annual meeting of the Psychometric Society, New York, New York, September 3, 1966.This paper was prepared while the author was a Fellow at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences. The investigation was supported by a Public Health Service fellowship, 1 F3, MH-28, 495-01 (PS), from the National Institute of Mental Health.     

The computer as psychometrician

The application of computers to the functions traditionally carried out by a psychometrician or psychologist is examined. Diagnosis, psychotherapy, interviewing, psychological testing, test interpretation, and report writing are reviewed. The advantages and disadvantages of using computers in assessment applications are discussed. Patient and professional acceptance of automated psychological services is reviewed, as well as the parameters to consider in the development of computerized interviewing and testing. Brief comments are made regarding suitable computer systems for these applications. It is argued that computers can provide a cost-effective enhancement to the delivery of mental health services.     

Knowing your heart and your mind: The relationships between metamemory and interoception

Humans experience a unified self that integrates our mental lives and physical bodies, but many studies focus on isolated domains of self-knowledge. We tested the hypothesis that knowledge of one’s mind and body are related by examining metamemory and interoception. We evaluated two dimensions of metamemory and interoception: subjective beliefs and the accuracy of those beliefs compared to objective criteria. We first demonstrated, in two studies, that metamemory beliefs were positively correlated with interoceptive beliefs, and this was not due to domain-general confidence. Finally, we showed that individuals with better metamemory accuracy also had better interoceptive accuracy. Taken together, these findings suggest a common mechanism subserving knowledge of our cognitive and bodily states.     

The relationship of computer self-efficacy expectations to computer interest and course enrollment in college

Gender differences in perceived self-efficacy for computer use may help account for differential computer interest and course enrollment at the college level. Three hundred sixty-eight students completed a two-page questionnaire assessing perceived computer self-efficacy, plans to take a computer science course, perceived importance of computing skills, and interest in learning about computers. Men rated themselves higher than did women for perceived self-efficacy. They were also more positive on the cognitive outcome measures, but with computer self-efficacy held constant, the magnitude of these differences was decreased, suggesting that perceived self-efficacy may be an important consideration when examining gender differences in computer interest and use.The author wishes to thank Dr. Martin Ford and Dr. Albert Bandura for their helpful comments on an earlier version of this article. This research was supported by a grant from the San Jose State University Foundation. Portions of this research were reported at the annual meetings of the American Educational Research Association in San Francisco, April 1986.     

The strategic nature of changing your mind

In two experiments, we studied how people’s strategy choices emerge through an initial and then a more considered evaluation of available strategies. The experiments employed a computer-based paradigm where participants solved multiplication problems using mental and calculator solutions. In addition to recording responses and solution times, we gathered data on mouse cursor movements. Participants’ motor behavior was revealing; although people rapidly initiated movement to the calculator box or the answer input box, they frequently changed their minds and went to the other box. Movement initiation direction depended on problem difficulty and calculator responsiveness. Ultimate strategy selection also depended on these factors, but was further influenced by movement initiation direction. We conclude that strategy selection is iterative, as revealed by these differences between early cursor movement and eventual strategy implementation. After rapidly initiating movement favoring one strategy, people carefully evaluate the applicability of that strategy in the current context.     

Computer parasites and hosts: Practical advice on how to be a successful parasite at your host's computer installation

The article proposes a solution to the budgetary, computational, psychological, and sociological problems that are encountered by behavioural scientists who contemplate doing on-line computing.     

The computer as experimenter in social psychological research

The effects of familiarity and exposure paradigm on evaluative meaning were investigated in four experiments involving 161 Ss. A DEC PDP-10 computer linked to a VB10-C display screen for 1/0 assigned Ss to condition, presented instructions, tested Ss’ understanding of the instructions, generated and displayed stimuli in various frequencies, and obtained evaluative ratings of the stimuli. Problems encountered, Ss’ reactions, and current and possible use of the computer in social psychological research are discussed.     

The more your mind wanders,the smaller your attentional blink: An individual differences study

The present studies investigate the hypothesis that individuals who frequently report experiencing episodes of mind wandering do so because they under-invest attentional/executive resources in the external environment. Here we examined whether self-reported instances of mind wandering predict the magnitude of the “attentional blink” (AB) in a rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) task, since a prominent view is that the AB derives from an over-investment of attention in the information stream. Study 1 demonstrates that subjective reports of mind wandering in a sustained attention task have a negative predictive relation with respect to the magnitude of the AB measured in a subsequent RSVP task. In addition, using the Spontaneous and Deliberate Mind Wandering Questionnaire in Study 2, we were again able to show that trait-level mind wandering in everyday life negatively predicts AB magnitude. We suggest that mind wandering may be the behavioural outcome of an adaptive cognitive style intended to maximize the efficient processing of dynamic and temporally unpredictable events.     

The first time ever I saw your face

The perception of social information is crucial for the survival of most animal species. Two recent studies demonstrate the joint contribution of innate mechanisms and perceptual experience to two aspects of social perception--faces and biological motion. Together, they highlight how important it is to consider faces and biological motion as different visual properties used by a broader social perception system.     

The many-property problem is your problem,too

Philosophical Studies - The many-property problem has traditionally been taken to show that the adverbial theory of perception is untenable. This paper first shows that several widely accepted...     

The reference class problem is your problem too

The reference class problem arises when we want to assign a probability to a proposition (or sentence, or event) X, which may be classified in various ways, yet its probability can change depending on how it is classified. The problem is usually regarded as one specifically for the frequentist interpretation of probability and is often considered fatal to it. I argue that versions of the classical, logical, propensity and subjectivist interpretations also fall prey to their own variants of the reference class problem. Other versions of these interpretations apparently evade the problem. But I contend that they are all “no-theory” theories of probability - accounts that leave quite obscure why probability should function as a guide to life, a suitable basis for rational inference and action. The reference class problem besets those theories that are genuinely informative and that plausibly constrain our inductive reasonings and decisions. I distinguish a “metaphysical” and an “epistemological” reference class problem. I submit that we can dissolve the former problem by recognizing that probability is fundamentally a two-place notion: conditional probability is the proper primitive of probability theory. However, I concede that the epistemological problem remains.     

The use of the computer in life history research

Methodological difficulties in conducting large-scale life history studies and the role of the computer in resolving data gathering and data analysis problems are explored. The processing capabilities of the computer are also examined as a means of advancing the area of life history research.