The development of conceptual and rote recall skills among school age children

One hundred eighty children from Grades K, 5, and 9 performed a recall task within one of four instructional conditions: serial recall; standard free recall; labeling free recall; labeling cued recall. The task required that Ss view and recall items from three successively presented sets of categorized pieture stimuli. Controls were imposed upon the associatice relatedness of items within sets so as to minimize the occurrence of associative responding during recall. The clustering data showed that kindergarten and fifth grade children are able to use conceptual skills to effectively mediate recall, but fail to effect these skills on a spontaneous basis in free recall. The results were discussed in line with the hypothesis that young children fail to engage in planful cognitive activity in recall tasks.     

Teaching directional skills to preschool and kindergarten children

Studied a new device and training procedure for teaching the directional orientation and sentence tracking skills used in reading and writing western languages. Twelve preschool and 14 kindergarten children were randomly assigned to E and C groups. Between pre- and posttests, Es practiced for a total of 20 min. over a two-week period with an electronic device which flashed a correct signal only when S scribed left-to-right through successive sentences from top to bottom of the display. Any error in sequence extinguished the signal. Cs received only pre- and posttests. On test sentences prior to practice neither Es nor Cs were able to show where the sentences began or how they went from beginning to end. After using the device, Es tripled their orientation and tracking scores, while Cs not given access to the device did not improve (p < .002). Left-right and up-down directional confusion, often the subject of many hours of remedial training, were shown to be rapidly corrected in normal children by the use of a simple electronic device providing clear feedback distinguishing correct from incorrect responses. Implications for prereading instruction are discussed.     

A conceptual model for the development of externalizing behavior problems among kindergarten children of alcoholic families: role of parenting and children's self-regulation

The purpose of this study was to test a conceptual model predicting children's externalizing behavior problems in kindergarten in a sample of children with alcoholic (n = 130) and nonalcoholic (n = 97) parents. The model examined the role of parents' alcohol diagnoses, depression, and antisocial behavior at 12-18 months of child age in predicting parental warmth/sensitivity at 2 years of child age. Parental warmth/sensitivity at 2 years was hypothesized to predict children's self-regulation at 3 years (effortful control and internalization of rules), which in turn was expected to predict externalizing behavior problems in kindergarten. Structural equation modeling was largely supportive of this conceptual model. Fathers' alcohol diagnosis at 12-18 months was associated with lower maternal and paternal warmth/sensitivity at 2 years. Lower maternal warmth/sensitivity was longitudinally predictive of lower child self-regulation at 3 years, which in turn was longitudinally predictive of higher externalizing behavior problems in kindergarten, after controlling for prior behavior problems. There was a direct association between parents' depression and children's externalizing behavior problems. Results indicate that one pathway to higher externalizing behavior problems among children of alcoholics may be via parenting and self-regulation in the toddler to preschool years.     

Relationship between growth status at birth and motor and cognitive development in a French sample of gifted children

Data on growth status at birth in a French sample of gifted children identified at school age were analysed in a retrospective survey. Birth weight, gestational age, head circumference, stature, gender, parental socio-economic status, information on the pregnancy, and motor development were recorded. On the basis of standard growth curves, the sample was characterised according to the 10th, 50th, 75th and 90th percentiles. Three groups of gestational age were determined: preterm births (18.6%), full term births (63.2%) and post-term births (18.1%) with a high frequency of hypertrophy in preterm births (≥ 90th). Intellectual quotient (IQ) did not differ among the groups, showing a notable advance in motor development. This research shows that, among children later identified as gifted, compared to those born full term, preterm infants showed a significant relationship between homogeneity in anthropometric variables and future motor and intellectual development when these children were exposed to a favourable perinatal environment (few pregnancy complications) and a favourable postnatal parental socio-economic status.     

Motor imagery combined with action observation training optimized for individual motor skills further improves motor skills close to a plateau

The acquisition of high-level motor skills beyond a “plateau” is important in sports training and rehabilitation. We aimed to investigate whether motor skills close to a plateau state can be improved further by performing motor imagery (MI) training while observing movements with difficulty levels optimized for individual motor skills. The subjects were divided randomly into four groups (n = 10 per group): the control group and three groups of MI combined with action observation (MI + AO) training with varying difficulty levels. The task was to rotate the two cork balls 20 times counterclockwise using the left hand. The subjects performed 30 and 10 successful trials of this task before and after MI + AO training, respectively. In the three training groups, MI training was performed while observing videos showing ball rotation movements adjusted to the same level, a moderately higher level, or a remarkably higher level of difficulty than that achieved by the individual subjects. The improvement rate of the ball rotation time after MI + AO training was significantly higher in the moderate-difficulty than in the control group and remarkably higher level of difficulty group. The other two MI + AO training groups did not differ significantly compared with the control group. The vividness of the MI during MI + AO training was significantly greater in the moderate-difficulty vs. the remarkably-high-difficulty group. These results suggest that performing MI training while observing movement at a level that is moderately higher than an individual's ability can promote improvements in motor skills (close to a plateau state) in rehabilitation and sports training. The vividness of MI may be an important index for determining the difficulty level of the movement to be observed during MI + AO training.     

The development of conceptual interests in young children

We conducted a longitudinal analysis of the relative intensity and duration of interests associated with conceptual domains between the ages of 4 and 6 years, respectively. Results indicated a significant portion of preschool children do sustain an interest in conceptual domains during some portion of their childhood. Expected gender differences were found, with boys more likely to express an interest in a conceptual domain than girls. A latent growth curve analysis revealed that the probability of exhibiting a conceptual interest declined as school began, though the rate of that decline was similar for both boys and girls. Potential explanations for the decrease in conceptual interests as school begins are considered.     

Biographic and behavioral factors are associated with music-related motor skills in children pianists

This study aimed to identify biographical and behavioral factors associated with children pianists’ motor skills using an objective assessment of a music-relevant motor task. Motor skills at the piano were assessed in 30 children pianists by measuring temporal unevenness in standardized scale playing using musical instrument digital interface (MIDI)-based scale analysis. Questionnaires were used to collect detailed information about the amount of time playing the piano, practice characteristics, attitudes toward music and practice, and the environment of music and practice. Associations between performance values and variables from the questionnaire were investigated using multivariable linear regression. A higher number of years playing the piano, more frequent parental involvement in the child’s practice, more frequent practice of technical exercises, and greater enjoyment of practice and of the visual arts were associated with better motor performance. In addition to cumulative experience and aspects of practice, extrinsic motivational factors (e.g., parental interest) and intrinsic motivational factors (e.g., an artistic disposition) were associated with better performance on a musically-relevant motor task in children pianists.     

Spatial cognition and motor development: a study of children with spina bifida

The purpose of this study was to examine the relation between motor development and spatial cognition. The sample was 20 children with Spina bifida (M age: 11.4 yr., SD = 1.7) and 20 healthy children as controls (M age: 11.8, SD = 1.8 yr.). An experimental assessment of motor development in spatial cognition in a simulated virtual maze by school-age children is lacking. In this study children with Spina bifida, who were impaired in walking since birth, completed four visuospatial tasks in a small-scale space (Mental Rotation, Water-Level Task, Embedded Figures Test, Visual Short-term Memory Test), and a spatial behaviour and knowledge task in a virtual maze. These children showed poorer performance than children in the control group on most measures. The results are discussed with respect to theoretical implications and further research.     

Cumulative risk,teacher-child closeness,executive function and early academic skills in kindergarten children

We tested the role of teacher-child closeness in moderating the associations between early childhood adversity, measured as a cumulative risk index, and child outcomes during the kindergarten year. Using the ECLSK:11, a national dataset of kindergarteners in the 2010–11 academic year, we examined three dimensions of executive function (cognitive flexibility, inhibitory control, working memory), as well as early reading and math scores, as key skills that facilitate the transition to school. Cumulative risk was negatively associated with all outcomes, and teacher-child closeness was positively associated with all outcomes. Teacher-child closeness moderated the relation between cumulative risk and working memory and cumulative risk and reading scores in a protective manner, but not cognitive flexibility, inhibitory control, or math scores. Implications for research in early childhood adversity and education are discussed.     

The development of compensatory stepping skills in children

The development of the ability to use the step for balance recovery was studied among twenty-five 9- to 19-month-old children. The children were grouped according to walking experience (4 levels) and exposed to backward support surface translations, 8 cm in amplitude, under 3 velocity conditions: 15, 20, and 25 cm/s. New walkers (up to 2 weeks' walking experience) used the step infrequently and ineffectively in response to threats to balance. Intermediate walkers (1-3 months' walking experience) showed an increasing use of the step and significant improvement in step execution compared with new walkers. Advanced walkers (>3; months' walking experience) experienced no falls throughout the protocol, capturing balance with feet-in-place or step responses under all perturbation conditions. A significant developmental transition in the emergence of the compensatory step occurred between the new walker and the intermediate walker experience levels, that is, within the first 3 months of walking experience. Three to 6 months' experience was required for the development of an effective stepping response. A concomitant change in mediolateral stability paralleled the emergence of compensatory stepping.     

A conceptual model for cognitive-behavior therapy with children

This paper briefly reviews the historical and conceptual developments that produced the cognitive-behavioral model for clinical interventions with children. It is suggested that this model should be expanded by including the person variables of emotion and developmental level and by broadening the scope of environmental variables to include the family, school, and other social/community contexts. The implications of this expansion of the cognitive-behavioral model for psychopathology, assessment, and intervention are discussed.     

Effect of fine motor skills training on arithmetical ability in children

Previous researches have shown that there was a strong relationship between fine motor skills and arithmetical abilities in children. However, the majority of previous studies examined only the correlations between fine motor skills and arithmetical abilities, but did not attempt to determine their causal relationship. Thus, the aim of the present study was to examine the effect of motor skills training on arithmetical abilities among 80 first graders. One of the results showed that the intervention group, which received training in fine motor skills for 10 min, showed greater improvements in performance on an arithmetic task and a pegboard than did the active control group, which read their favourite book for 10 min. These findings have suggested that training in this study is an appropriate program for improving fine motor skills and further fine motor skills had a significant influence on arithmetical abilities in children, with a medium effect size. The present study has, for the first time, provided evidence that there will be a causal relationship between these factors.     

The influence of practice on the development of motor skills in pianists: a longitudinal study in a selected motor task

A longitudinal study was conducted to investigate the influence of practice on the long-term development of expert pianists' motor skills in a relevant musical context. Temporal evenness in standardized scale playing was assessed twice in 19 pianists within an average time interval of 27 months. Questionnaires were used for retrospective assessment of practice quantity and several qualitative parameters related to practicing of scales. The development of temporal evenness in scale playing over the follow-up period correlated with the practice time accumulated during that period and with the average daily practice time. Expert pianists with an average daily practice time of 3.75h or more showed an improvement of performance in this selected motor skill. No significant association was observed between motor skill development during the follow-up period and the content of practice. Stepwise linear regression revealed a model predicting 43% of the variance of motor skill development, with practice time accumulated during the follow-up period as the only predictor. It was concluded that, in expert pianists, maintenance of motor skills in the selected motor task was strongly influenced by practice quantity.     

Association between fine motor skills and binocular visual function in children with reading difficulties

Performance of fine motor skills (FMS) assessed by a clinical test battery has been associated with reading achievement in school-age children. However, the nature of this association remains to be established. The aim of this study was to assess FMS in children with reading difficulties using two experimental tasks, and to determine if performance is associated with reduced binocular function. We hypothesized that in comparison to an age- and sex-matched control group, children identified with reading difficulties will perform worse only on a motor task that has been shown to rely on binocular input. To test this hypothesis, motor performance was assessed using two tasks: bead-threading and peg-board in 19 children who were reading below expected grade and age-level. Binocular vision assessment included tests for stereoacuity, fusional vergence, amplitude of accommodation, and accommodative facility. In comparison to the control group, children with reading difficulties performed significantly worse on the bead-threading task. In contrast, performance on the peg-board task was similar in both groups. Accommodative facility was the only measure of binocular function significantly associated with motor performance. Findings from our exploratory study suggest that normal binocular vision may provide an important sensory input for the optimal development of FMS and reading. Given the small sample size tested in the current study, further investigation to assess the contribution of binocular vision to the development and performance of FMS and reading is warranted.     

Working memory and fine motor skills predict early numeracy performance of children with cerebral palsy

Early numeracy is an important precursor for arithmetic performance, academic proficiency, and work success. Besides their apparent motor difficulties, children with cerebral palsy (CP) often show additional cognitive disturbances. In this study, we examine whether working memory, non-verbal intelligence, linguistic skills, counting and fine motor skills are positively related to the early numeracy performance of 6-year-old children with CP. A total of 56 children (M = 6.0, SD = 0.61, 37 boys) from Dutch special education schools participated in this cross-sectional study. Of the total group, 81% of the children have the spastic type of CP (33% unilateral and 66% bilateral), 9% have been diagnosed as having diskinetic CP, 8% have been diagnosed as having spastic and diskinetic CP and 2% have been diagnosed as having a combination of diskinetic and atactic CP. The children completed standardized tests assessing early numeracy performance, working memory, non-verbal intelligence, sentence understanding and fine motor skills. In addition, an experimental task was administered to examine their basic counting performance. Structural equation modeling showed that working memory and fine motor skills were significantly related to the early numeracy performance of the children (β = .79 and p < .001, β = .41 and p < .001, respectively). Furthermore, counting was a mediating variable between working memory and early numeracy (β = .57, p < .001). Together, these findings highlight the importance of working memory for early numeracy performance in children with CP and they warrant further research into the efficacy of intervention programs aimed at working memory training.     

Relationships between physical activity and motor skills in middle school children

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between physical activity measured as pedometer steps and performance on three motor skill tests. A secondary purpose was to determine if middle school children are meeting the recommendation for the number of daily steps. A sample (n =217) of 6th, 7th and 8th grade students participated. Each subject wore a Digi-Walker pedometer for three consecutive days. Subjects additionally recorded their pedometer steps in two 45 min.-physical education classes. There were strong significant correlations between daily steps taken by boys and girls, pedometer steps during physical education class and the AAHPERD Passing Test and the Bass Stick Balance. Similar correlations were weaker for the Side-Step Agility Test. Multivariate analysis of variance was utilized to examine variability of the three skills test by sex and year in school. Differences between students in Grades 7 and 8 on the AAHPERD Passing Test were significant. In addition, significant differences between daily pedometer steps and steps during physical education between Grades 6 and 7 were observed. Boys and girls had similar means on the AAHPERD Passing Test and Bass Stick Balance Test, but not on the Side-Step Agility Test. Scores on the three movement skills tested in this study were not strongly related to physical activity of the entire sample. Steps taken by middle school children appear not to be related to these measures of motor skills.     

Physical activity and motor skills in children: A differentiated approach

Being physically active plays an essential role in a child's physical development. While there is ample evidence for a positive association between physical activity (PA) and motor skills in children, the question of how PA should be implemented to optimally foster motor skill proficiency is less clear. To address this gap, the current longitudinal study compared four groups of children with different patterns of leisure-time PA engagement—namely children engaging in either structured PA, unstructured PA, a combination of structured and unstructured PA, or no PA at all—with respect to their gross and fine motor skill development. Results of repeated measures mixed modeling procedures revealed that engaging in structured PA—either exclusively or in combination with unstructured PA—is beneficial for children's gross motor development, whereas engaging in unstructured PA lacks such effectiveness. As to fine motor skills, a beneficial tendency of structured PA was observed as well. Hence, PA seems to be beneficial for motor skill development particularly when implemented in a formal setting with guided opportunities for practice. In conclusion, regularly engaging in structured PA constitutes a promising way to promote motor skills and support motor development over the long term.     

The role of motivation in the conceptual model of motor development in childhood

The aim of this study was twofold: first, to investigate whether perceived motor competence (PMC) mediates the relation between actual motor competence (AMC) and physical activity (PA) according to the conceptual model of motor development, and second to examine the role of different motivational regulations (i.e., intrinsic, identified, introjected, and external regulation) in the relationship between PMC and PA. A sample of 504 Spanish students (46.2% girls, 8–12 years old) voluntarily participated in this study. In relation to the first aim, structural equation modeling revealed that PMC indeed mediates the association between AMC and PA. In relation to the second aim, positive associations between AMC and PMC (β = 0.32, p < .001), which in turn was positively related to intrinsic and identified regulations (β = 0.46 and β = 0.43 respectively, p < .001), were found. The model showed direct paths from intrinsic and introjected regulation to PA (β = 0.27 and β = 0.22, p < .05) and indirect paths from PMC through intrinsic motivation to PA (β = 0.13, p < .05). This study confirms that intrinsic motivation mediates the association between PMC and PA. Strategies targeting to build and develop children’s AMC and PMC, and fostering children’s intrinsic motivation should be targeted to promote children’s PA engagement and motor development.