The measurement of self-actualization: a critical review of the Personal Orientation Inventory.

Shostrom's Personal Orientation Inventory (POI) was reviewed in terms of its reliability and validity. The use of the POI in counseling and psychotherapeutic settings was emphasized. Faking and social desirability were also discussed in light of existing evidence. It was concluded that the POI offers great potential for use in counseling contexts but in its present state should be considered a research instrument.     

Stability of results across many studies: sex differences on the personal orientation inventory

An analysis of sex differences on the Personal Orientation Inventory (POI) was used to illustrate a method to assess the stability of results across many studies. It was argued that sex should not be Used as a moderator as significant differences between males and females were not found consistently across six studies using the POI.     

Stability of Results Across Many Studies: Sex Differences on the Personal Orientation Inventory

An analysis of sex differences on the Personal Orientation Inventory (POI) was used to illustrate a method to assess the stability of results across many studies. It was argued that sex should not be Used as a moderator as significant differences between males and females were not found consistently across six studies using the POI.     

Positive Mental Health and Facilitative Genuineness During Counseling

This study was undertaken to determine if the scales on the Personal Orientation Inventory (POI), a measure of positive mental health, could effectively discriminate between two groups of counselors with respect to ability to communicate the therapeutic condition of facilitative genuineness within counseling relationships. Results disclosed that 7 of the 12 scales of the POI significantly differentiated between the “high genuineness” and “low genuineness” groups. Findings suggest that counselor education programs should focus more directly upon providing personal growth experiences for students of counseling.     

Time experiences, self-actualizing values, and creativity.

The Personal Orientation Inventory (POI), the Inventory of Temporal Experiences (ITE), and the Adjective Check List (ACL) were administered to 80 subjects. Sixteen scores were derived from the POI, 4 from the ITE and a Creativity score for the ACL. The resulting intercorrelations were interpreted in the light of the theories of Maslow and Hugenholtz which postulate a convergence of self-actualization, creativity, and certain experiences of time. The present study presents some evidence for the expected convergence and contributes to the construct validity of several of the variables studied.     

How the personality dimensions of neuroticism, extraversion and psychoticism relate to self-actualization

This study examines the relationship between the personality dimensions of ‘neuroticism’, ‘extraversion’, ‘psychoticism’, from the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) and ‘self-actualization’, measured by the Personal Orientation Inventory (POI) for 212 undergraduate students. The two major scales of the POI, (Time Competence and Inner Directed), both separately and as a combined measure of self-actualization were correlated with the scores obtained on the EPQ. The results showed the hypothesized significant negative relationship between neuroticism and self-actualization, and for females only, the hypothesized significant positive relationship between extraversion and self-actualization. Contrary to hypothesis, no relationship between psychoticism and self-actualization was found.     

Exploring the Construct Validity of the Social Cognition and Object Relations Scale in a Clinical Sample

The resistance of the Personal Orientation Dimensions (POD) to deliberate attempts at creating a favorable impression was investigated. Two groups of college students were used: (a) 21 students completed the POD under standard instructions, then received information about actualization, and completed the POD again under instructions to Create a very good impression; (b) 21 students completed the POD under standard instructions, then received information not related to actualization, and completed the POD again under instructions to create a very good impression. An analyses indicated that providing students with information about actualization did not facilitate their ability to create a favorable impression on the POD. The POD profiles produced by both groups changed significantly, and in a similar direction from pretest to posttest. Evidence is presented suggesting the existence of a "lie profile" which distinguishes deliberate attempts to create a favorable impression on the POD. These findings provide support for the resistance of the POD to deliberate attempts at creating a favorable impression.     

The fakability of the personal orientation dimensions: evidence for a lie profile

The resistance of the Personal Orientation Dimensions (POD) to deliberate attempts at creating a favorable impression was investigated. Two groups of college students were used: (a) 21 students completed the POD under standard instructions, then received information about actualization, and completed the POD again under instructions to Create a very good impression; (b) 21 students completed the POD under standard instructions, then received information not related to actualization, and completed the POD again under instructions to create a very good impression. An analyses indicated that providing students with information about actualization did not facilitate their ability to create a favorable impression on the POD. The POD profiles produced by both groups changed significantly, and in a similar direction from pretest to posttest. Evidence is presented suggesting the existence of a "lie profile" which distinguishes deliberate attempts to create a favorable impression on the POD. These findings provide support for the resistance of the POD to deliberate attempts at creating a favorable impression.     

Shostrom's personal orientation inventory: Arguments against its basic validity

Psychometric characteristics and validity of the Personal Orientation Inventory (POI) are at issue in the literature, particularly sinece the reported POI's internal consistency reliabilities are below accepted levels for published tests. This paper contends that a likely root of serious problems lies in errors made in the original POI validation. It is shown that the POI fails to meet its long-standing published claim that it can discriminate between ‘self-actualized’ (SA) and ‘normal adults’, as this is shown not to be true for 75% of its scales. It is demonstrated that the original and extend validation was illogically based on mean values of test scores of validation subject groups instead of correctly using their score ranges. A substantial lack of discrimination between the SA and ‘non-self-actualizing’ norm groups is shown to arise from the overlap of their estimated correct validation ranges amounting to about 62–86% of their combined membership. A hypothesis is that the POI is not measuring the degree of SA sufficiently, but instead measures some other variable(s) that may be weak to moderate correlate. Alternatively, the differences in the three validation constructs used may have been weakly exemplified by the subjects chosen for the validation groups. Clinical and research use of the POI is questionable. Suggestions are made for a proper validation model and for POI revisions.     

Physical self-efficacy and actualization

In his theorizing about self-actualization, Maslow speculated that physical ability and physical self-confidence were two aspects of cooperative dominance which were associated positively with actualization. These aspects of dominance bear close resemblance to the Perceived Physical Ability (PPA) and the Physical Self-Presentation Confidence (PSPC) dimensions of the Physical Self-Efficacy (PSE) Inventory. Accordingly, the PPA and PSPC scores of undergraduate men and women were correlated with their scores on the Personal Orientation Inventory (POI), a popular measure of actualization, to test Maslow's hypotheses. The results showed that, contrary to Maslow's claims, PPA is not a positive correlate of self-actualization. However, strong support was found for Maslow's contention that high-PSPC individuals are more likely to be actualizing than low-PSPC people. Also, Maslow's hypothesis that actualizers are high in global sensation seeking (SS) was tested. The data indicated that only male actualizers were high in various aspects of SS, but female actualizers were not. Multiple regression analyses revealed further that both SS and PSPC are primary contributors to POI for men, but only PSPC contributes significantly to POI for women. Discussion focused on the reasons why research findings showing that increases in physical fitness lead to increases in self-esteem cannot be used to support the view that physical fitness and actualization are linked positively.     

A review of the Personal Orientation Dimensions Inventory

The Personal Orientation Dimensions Inventory is considered to be an extension and refinement of the concepts measured by the Personal Orientation Inventory. Changes include the elimination of item overlap, an increase in the number of scales and items in the inventory as well as a new theoretical perspective. Significant difficulties still appear to exist in the areas of test construction, theoretical justification, and interpretation. Moreover, the new inventory creates new problems concerning cost for scoring, failure to generate significant amounts of research, as well as a potential loss of relatedness to old research.     

Motivation for Parenthood

Summary: The relationships between the tendency of subjects to perceive temporal zones as interrelated or discrete and other temporal behaviors and personality factors were explored in two studies, one using 115 college students and the other 60 college students, employing the Personal Orientation Inventory the Temporal Orientation Inventory, and the Circles Test. Subjects who obtained higher time-relatedness scores were found to demonstrate greater self-actualization, evaluate the present time mode more positively, overestimate time intervals in an estimation task, and to perform less accurately in time estimation than low time relaters.     

Temporal relatedness: personality and behavioral correlates.

The relationships between the tendency of subjects to perceive temporal zones as interrelated or discrete and other temporal behaviors and personality factors were explored in two studies, one using 115 college students and the other 60 college students, employing the Personal Orientation Inventory, the Temporal Orientation Inventory, and the Circles Test. Subjects who obtained higher time-relatedness scores were found to demonstrate greater self-actualization, evaluate the present time mode more positively, over-estimate time intervals in an estimation task, and to perform less accurately in time estimation than low time relaters.     

Varieties of openness in Tehran and Qom: psychological and religious parallels of faith and intellect-oriented Islamic religious reflection

This study examined whether faith and intellect-oriented religious reflection would be polarised in Iranian Muslins as they appear to be in American Christians. Iranian students at a university in Tehran and at an Islamic seminary in Qom responded to Faith and Intellect-Oriented Islamic Religious Reflection measures along with scales recording various forms of religious commitment and psychological openness. Both types of religious reflection and the Intrinsic Religious Orientation predicted greater Integrative Self-Knowledge, Openness to Experience, and Need for Cognition and also interacted in ways suggesting complexity in Muslim thought. Comparisons between Tehran and Qom students supported the same conclusion. The Quest Religious Orientation had limited relevance for understanding Muslim commitments. The Extrinsic Personal Religious Orientation predicted greater and the Extrinsic Social Religious Orientation predicted lower psychological openness. These data contrasted with previous evidence of polarisation in the religious reflection of American Christians. They also argued against any simple equation of Muslim commitments with cognitive and religious rigidity.     

The Relationship Among Substance Abuse Counselors' Spiritual Well‐Being,Values, and Self‐Actualizing Characteristics and the Impact on Clients' Spiritual Well‐Being

This study explored the relationship between scores on the Spiritual Well‐Being Scale and subscales from the Rokeach Value Survey and the Personal Orientation Inventory of substance abuse counselors in the Commonwealth of Virginia. This study also examined the impact of counselors' spiritual well‐being on the spiritual well‐being of patients in their clinical care. The results indicated that the values of wisdom and loving from the Rokeach Value Survey and self‐acceptance from the Personal Orientation Inventory accounted for approximately half of the spiritual well‐being variance. These variables could be used as indicators in the supervisory process, could help promote substance abuse counselors' spiritual well‐being, and could educate counselors on burnout prevention. Follow‐up findings indicated a statistically significant change score on patients' pretest and posttest scores on the Spiritual Well‐Being Scale, indicating an increase in patients' spiritual wellbeing while in inpatient addiction treatment.     

Reliability and validity of the Santa Clara Strength of Religious Faith Questionnaire

This study investigates the reliability and validity of the Santa Clara Strength of Religious Faith Questionnaire (SCSORF). The SCSORF and religiosity measures (i.e., Age Universal Religious Orientation Survey, Religious Life Inventory, and the God Control measure from the Belief in Personal Control Scale) were administered to three samples. Results suggest that the SCSORF is both reliable and valid.     

Personal Orientation Inventory correlated with physical health.

Predicting 92 subjects' physical health status from their scores on the Personal Orientation Inventory using regression analysis showed that those who obtained high self-regard scores and high self-actualizing value scores also reported better physical health. Those subjects who reported poorer physical health also scored high on the synergy scale.     

Personality and self-actualizing profiles of assertive people

This study tested the hypothesis that assertive and nonassertive people have different personality profiles and self-actualizing values. Results indicated that assertive and nonassertive groups differed significantly, in terms of their personality profiles based on the Personality Research Form, and their self-actualization profiles based on the Personal Orientation Inventory, supporting the tested hypothesis.     

The Effect of Hypophysectomy on Personality in Women with Metastatic Breast Cancer as Revealed by the Rorschach Test

This study tested the hypothesis that assertive and nonassertive people have different personality profiles and self-actualizing values. Results indicated that assertive and nonassertive groups differed significantly, in terms of their personality profiles based on the Personality Research Form, and their self-actualization profiles based on the Personal Orientation Inventory, supporting the tested hypothesis.     

Secretarial and management students: Attitudes,attributes, and career choice considerations

Secretarial and management students were compared on characteristics that have differentiated between traditional and nontraditional career women. Fifty-five female secretarial students and 55 female management (bachelor of commerce) students completed the following measures: (a) the Work and Family Orientation Questionnaire (WOFO); (b) the Attitudes toward Women Scale (AWS); (c) the Powerful Others, Personal Control, and Chance Scales (I-E Scale); (d) the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ); and (e) a measure of career choice considerations. The groups differed on two aspects of the WOFO (competitiveness and desire to master difficult intellectual challenges), and on Personal Control, sex role orientation (PAQ), and career choice considerations. The results are discussed with respect to sex role socialization and the denigration of secretarial work.