Money Doesn't Talk, It Swears: How Economic Stress and Resistance Resources Impact Inner-City Women's Depressive Mood

We examined the differential impact of chronic versus acute economic stress on depressive mood among a sample of 1241 low-income, single, European and African American women. Based on Hobfoll's (1988, 1989) conservation of resources (COR) theory, we predicted that acute resource loss would be more distressing than chronic economic lack. That is, although chronically impoverished conditions are stressful, the attendant resource losses created will be more distressing. We further predicted that mastery and social support would be more beneficial in offsetting the negative consequences of acute resource loss than the negative consequences of chronic economic lack, because acute loss creates identifiable demands that resources may address. Hence, we hypothesized that mastery and social support would show stress buffering effects only for material loss, not chronic lack. The findings generally supported the hypotheses, but mastery buffered only European American women's resource loss and social support buffered only African American women's resource loss. The findings are discussed in light of implications for prevention within theoretical and cultural contexts.     

Resource loss, resource gain, and depressive symptoms: a 10-year model.

This study examined a broadened conceptualization of the stress and coping process that incorporated a more dynamic approach to understanding the role of psychosocial resources in 326 adults studied over a 10-year period. Resource loss across 10 years was significantly associated with an increase in depressive symptoms, whereas resource gain across 10 years was significantly associated with a decrease in depressive symptoms. In addition, change in the preponderance of negative over positive events across 10 years was inversely associated with change in resources during the period. Finally, in an integrative structural equation model, the association between change in life events and depressive symptoms at follow-up was completely mediated through resource change.     

Stress,coping, HIV status,psychosocial resources,and depressive mood in African American gay,bisexual, and heterosexual men

The associations between stress, physical health, psychosocial resources, coping, and depressive mood were examined in a community sample of African American gay, bisexual, and heterosexual men (N=139). Data were collected from physical exams and in-person interviews. In our theoretical framework, depressive mood scores were regressed first on stressors, next on psychosocial resources, and finally on coping strategy variables. Results revealed that psychosocial resources mediate the effects of stressors, including health symptoms, hassles, and life events, on depressive mood. There were no significant differences in depressive mood associated with HIV status or sexual orientation. Results are discussed in terms of community interventions needed to provide social support as a buffer between stress and psychological distress in African American men. The research was completed at the Center for AIDS Prevention Studies, University of California at San Francisco and was supported in part by National Institute of Mental Health Grants MH44045 and MH42459. The authors express their appreciation to the participants in this study.     

Distressing Relationships,Anger, and Stress Amplification in a Sample of Young Adult African Americans

This study examined the impact of relationship distress in a sample of 637 African American young adults from the Family and Community Health Study. Using data from privately collected, in-depth interviews, we assessed how distress in nonmarital romantic partnerships and best friendships influence anger. While social support researchers have examined the stress buffering influence of supportive relationships, we utilized the principle of negative potency to test the stress amplification effect of relationship distress through an assessment of stressful life events and racial discrimination. Our analysis showed that distress in relationships was associated with anger, while the presence of these relationships was not. Support for the stress amplification hypothesis was found as men and women who experience intense racial discrimination coupled with a more hostile best friend had elevated levels of anger. Gender differences were also evident and discussed.     

Coping, Conflictual Social Interactions, Social Support, and Mood Among HIV-Infected Persons

This study considers the interrelationships among coping, conflictual social interactions, and social support, as well as their combined associations with positive and negative mood. Research has shown that each of these variables affects adjustment to stressful circumstances. Few studies, however, examine this full set of variables simultaneously. One hundred forty HIV-infected persons completed a questionnaire containing measures of coping, social support, conflictual social interactions, and positive and negative mood. Factor analyses showed that perceived social support and conflictual social interactions formed separate factors and were not strongly related. Compared to perceived social support, social conflict was more strongly related to coping behaviors, especially to social isolation, anger, and wishful thinking. Conflictual social interactions were more strongly related to negative mood than was perceived social support. Coping by withdrawing socially was significantly related to less positive and greater negative mood. The findings point to the importance of simultaneously considering coping, supportive relationships, and conflictual relationships in studies of adjustment to chronic illness. In particular, a dynamic may occur in which conflictual social interactions and social isolation aggravate each other and result in escalating psychological distress.     

A model clarifying the role of mediators in the variability of mood states over time in people who stutter

PurposeElevated negative mood states such as social anxiety and depressive mood have been found in adults who stutter. Research is needed to assist in the development of a model that clarifies how factors like self-efficacy and social support contribute to the variability of negative mood states over time.MethodParticipants included 200 adults who stutter. A longitudinal design was employed to assess change in mood states over a period of five months. Hierarchical directed regression (path analysis) was used to determine contributory relationships between change in mood states and self-efficacy, social support, socio-demographic and stuttering disorder variables. Participants completed a comprehensive assessment regimen, including validated measures of mood states, perceived control (self-efficacy) and social support.ResultsResults confirmed that self-efficacy performs a protective role in the change in mood states like anxiety and depressive mood. That is, self-efficacy cushioned the impact of negative mood states. Social support was only found to contribute a limited protective influence. Socio-demographic variables had little direct impact on mood states, while perceived severity of stuttering also failed to contribute directly to mood at any time point.ConclusionsMood was found to be influenced by factors that are arguably important for a person to cope and adjust adaptively to the adversity associated with fluency disorder. A model that explains how mood states are influenced over time is described. Implications of these results for managing adults who stutter with elevated negative mood states like social anxiety are discussed.Educational Objectives: The reader will be able to describe: (a) the method involved in hierarchical (directed) regression used in path analysis; (b) the variability of mood states over a period of five months; (c) the nature of the mediator relationship between factors like self-efficacy and social support and mood states like anxiety, and (d) the contribution to mood states of socio-demographic factors like age and education and stuttering disorder variables like stuttering frequency and perceived severity.     

Financial Strain, Negative Interactions, and Mastery: Pathways to Mental Health Among Older African Americans

This study examines the impact of financial strain, social support, and negative interactions on depressive symptoms among African Americans and the role of mastery as a mediator in these relationships. Structural equation modeling and baseline data from the Americans' Changing Lives Study were used to test these relationships among a sample of African Americans aged 50 to 96 years (N = 583). Findings illustrate the mechanistic pathways whereby financial strain is associated with depressive symptoms. Moreover, the study findings give further credence to the notion that positive and negative aspects of social relationships are distinctive with respect to social status factors, financial strain, and their relationship to depressive symptoms. This research suggests that mastery is an important mechanism linking negative interaction to mental health. The collection of findings provide a number of provocative departures from research conducted primarily using White samples and identifies important areas of intervention with older African Americans.     

Personal Resources and the Social Distribution of Depression

This paper addresses the hypothesis that gender, age, marital status, and SES matter for depression partly because of associated differences in the availability and/or impact of the personal resources of mastery and self-esteem. It is argued that findings indicating that the social distributions of these resources complement those for depression would provide preliminary support for this hypothesis. Based on a large urban community sample (n = 1,390), our findings fail to support the availability hypothesis in relation to marital status, provide only modest support in reference to age and gender, but yield compelling support in relation to socioeconomic status (SES). Indeed, variations in the availability of these resources, especially mastery, provide a largely, if not entirely, adequate explanation for the SES–depressive symptoms relationship and accounts for nearly half of the SES–Major Depressive Disorder relationship. Although the significance of mastery was more pronounced among women and unmarried persons, such differences did not contribute to understanding observed gender or marital status variations in depression.     

The relative contribution of abuse severity and PTSD severity on the psychiatric and social morbidity of battered women in shelters

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a severe health problem associated with significant distress and impairment in women. The most common psychiatric difficulty in battered women is posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD); however, no research to date has investigated the relative impact of the severity of IPV and IPV-related PTSD symptoms on battered women's psychosocial functioning. In a sample of 177 sheltered battered women, PTSD severity was associated with considerable psychiatric morbidity, social maladjustment, and personal and social resource loss. Moreover, PTSD severity mediated the relationship between IPV severity and psychiatric severity and loss of personal and social resources. Results highlight the need for the assessment and treatment of IPV-related PTSD in battered women's shelters.     

Stress, Religious Coping Resources, and Depressive Symptoms in an Urban Adolescent Sample

We surveyed low-income urban adolescents about their total exposure to urban stressors and their use of religious coping resources, specifically in the areas of social support, spiritual support, and community service opportunities provided by their congregations. Additionally, we assessed their current levels of depressive symptomatology. Among females, the relationship between stress and depressive symptoms was moderated by the use of spiritual support and community service opportunities. The moderating relationship was such that at low levels of stress, high usage of these resources protected against the development of depressive symptoms. At high levels of stress, however, the protective relationship was lost. Lastly, when the social support aspects of religious coping were statistically controlled, the moderation effect disappeared, suggesting that within this sample, the social support seeking aspects of the resources, rather than their religious nature, was responsible for the effects.     

Social Support and Personal Mastery as Protective Resources During Emerging Adulthood

During emerging adulthood, lesbian and gay (LG) adults must develop an identity within the social context of heterosexist discrimination. Our specific aims were to examine differences by sexual orientation in depressive symptomatology and self-esteem and explore the role of personal resources in explaining these aspects of psychological well-being. Data were analyzed on 306 participants in emerging adulthood who completed an online survey. LG individuals experienced higher depressive symptomatology and lower self-esteem than heterosexuals, and variations in well-being were explained by personal mastery and social support. The instability which characterizes emerging adulthood is likely compounded by the developmental challenges posed by heterosexism. The formation of social relationships, coupled with personal mastery, appear to serve as protective resources during emerging adulthood.     

Efficacy and social support as predictors of parenting stress among families in poverty

Using a sample of low‐income mothers enrolled in Early Head Start (n = 65), this study tested the hypothesis that parenting stress is affected by social support and self‐efficacy, in addition to family risk status and family income. Specifically, it was proposed that social support and self‐efficacy are psychological resources that are associated with lower parenting stress levels, and would moderate the impact of family income on parenting stress. A significant proportion of variance in parenting stress was explained by self‐efficacy, family risk, and the interaction of self‐efficacy and family income; family income alone was not a significant predictor of parenting stress levels. Mothers higher in self‐efficacy had lower levels of parenting stress, and income was less associated with parenting stress levels for mothers high in self‐efficacy. Social support was not associated with lower parenting stress levels, nor did social support moderate the effect of income on parenting stress. Family risk was also a strong and reliable predictor of parenting stress, suggesting that family circumstances are perhaps better predictors of parenting stress levels than income alone. These findings suggest that parenting stress among low‐income parents should be viewed as a function of psychological, as well as financial, resources.     

Stress inoculation for reduction of burnout: A conservation of resources approach

We evaluated the efficacy of two programs designed to reduce stress among nurses by increasing their coping resources. The interventions were based on principles of Stress Inoculation Training and Conservation of Reources stress theory. A dual resource intervention targeted the enhancement of both social support and mastery resources. A single resource intervention targeted the enhancement of only mastery resources. Both interventions were contrasted to a no intervention control condition. Participants in the dual resource intervention experienced significant enhancements in social support and mastery compared to the no intervention control. The social support enhancement persisted through a five-week follow-up. Participants in the dual resource intervention with low initial levels of social support or mastery experienced significant reductions in psychological distress. Participants in the single resource intervention experienced a slight enhancement in mastery compared to the no intervention control. Implications for stress theory and the design of stress reduction programs are discussed.     

Fear,Anger, and Voting for the Far Right: Evidence From the November 13, 2015 Paris Terror Attacks

The conjecture that negative emotions underpin support for far‐right politics is common among pundits and scholars. The conventional account holds that authoritarian populists catalyze public anxiety about the changing social order and/or deteriorating national economic conditions, and this anxiety subsequently drives up support for the far right. We propose that while emotions do indeed play an independent causal role in support for far‐right parties and policies, that support is more likely built upon the public’s anger rather than fear. This article explores the relative impact of fear and anger in reaction to the 2015 Paris terror attacks on the propensity to vote for the French far‐right party, the Front National, in the 2015 regional elections. Contrary to conventional wisdom, we find that anger is associated with voting for the Front National, while fear is associated with voting against the Front National. Moreover, anger boosts the Front National vote most powerfully among far‐right and authoritarian voters. On the other hand, fear reduces support for the far right among those same groups.     

Depressive Symptomatology among HIV-Positive Women in the Era of HAART: A Stress and Coping Model

Objective: An enhanced stress and coping model was used to explain depression among HIV-positive women in healthcare and community settings where highly active anti-retroviral treatment (HAART) was commonplace. Method: HIV-infected women in four cities (N=978) were assessed, cross-sectionally, for mental and physical health, stress, social support, and other background factors. Results: Self-reported level of depressive symptomatology was high. Number of physical symptoms, illness intrusiveness, and perceived stress were positively associated with depressed mood, while coping self-efficacy and social support were negatively associated. Stress mediated the effect of health status on depression and coping self-efficacy mediated the effect of psychosocial resources on depression. Our enhanced stress and coping model accounted for 52% of variance in depressive symtpomatology. Conclusions: Interventions focused on improving coping self-efficacy, bolstering social supports, and decreasing stress in the lives of HIV-positive women may help to reduce the negative effects of HIV disease on mood.     

The Impact of Resource Loss and Critical Incidents on Psychological Functioning in Fire-Emergency Workers: A Pilot Study

The relationship between critical incident exposure and resource loss, as conceptualized by Conservation of Resources (COR) theory, in predicting later psychological outcome (e.g., depressive symptoms, anger expression, and state anger) was examined in a sample of 150 fire-emergency workers from a Fire Department in a mid-sized, midwestern city. Additionally, a measure of critical incidents (Critical Incidents Inventory) was developed, and preliminary data on its validity are presented. Results from multiple regression analyses indicated that fire-emergency workers' exposure to critical incidents was directly related to their report of depressive symptoms, outward expression of anger, and state anger. Additionally, results indicated that fire-emergency workers' resource loss was strongly related to their psychological outcome. Results also suggest that resource loss may mediate the impact of critical incident stress exposure on depressive symptoms and the outward expression of anger. These results offer support to applying COR theory to populations under extreme stress.     

Behavioral manifestations of social support: a microanalytic investigation

This study was designed to examine the specific interpersonal behaviors that convey support from one person to another. Subjects were 41 undergraduate students who completed a general measure of perceived social support and, subsequently, kept daily records of their social interactions and stressful experiences for 14 days. In addition, they completed a brief depressive mood measure (DACL; Lubin, 1981) each day. Results showed that behaviors reflecting emotional support and informational support occurred as a specific response to stressful life events. Although esteem support was expressed with equal frequency in the presence and absence of stress, it was especially effective in preventing depressive reactions to stressful events. Subjects who perceived themselves as having high levels of perceived social support were more frequently the recipients of helping behaviors following stressful events than those low in perceived support. Perceived social support was only predictive of helping behaviors on days on which at least one stressful event occurred. The total number of helping behaviors received following stressful events was a significant negative predictor of level of depressive mood, although one helping behavior was associated with higher levels of depression. Results are interpreted within the framework of the buffering model of social support.     

The impact of communal-mastery versus self-mastery on emotional outcomes during stressful conditions: a prospective study of Native American women

Past research has examined the stress resiliency of individuals high in sense of personal-mastery. However, it has been theorized that within more collectivist cultures, a sense of shared efficacy, which we call communal-mastery, may be more central to people's resiliency in the face of challenging life circumstances. We compared the impact of sense of self-mastery (i.e., I am the key to my success) to that of communal-mastery (i.e., I am successful by virtue of my social attachments) in a prospective study among a group of rural 103 Native American women residing on Indian Reservations in Montana. We found that women high in communal-mastery experienced less increase in depressive mood and anger, especially when faced with high stress circumstances, than women who were low in communal-mastery. In addition, the beneficial impact of communal-mastery was found to be more effective than self-mastery for these women.     

Affective, behavioral, and cognitive functioning in adolescents with multiple suicide attempts

The purpose of this study was to examine affective, behavioral, and cognitive functioning in adolescents with multiple suicide attempts. Forty-seven adolescents with a history of multiple suicide attempts (MA) were compared to 74 single suicide attempters (SA) on psychiatric diagnosis, depressive symptoms, affect regulation, self-mutilation, alcohol use, and hopelessness. Results revealed that the MA group was more likely to be diagnosed with a mood disorder, and reported more severe depressive symptoms and anger, in comparison to the SA group. Behaviorally, the MA group had higher rates of disruptive behavior disorders and higher levels of affect dysregulation and serious self-mutilation than the SA group. Further, greater levels of hopelessness were reported by the MA than the SA group. After controlling for a mood disorder diagnosis, only differences in anger, affect dysregulation, and serious self-mutilation remained significant. Overall, results suggest that treatment with adolescent suicide attempters might specifically target anger and affect dysregulation to reduce risk for future suicidal behavior.     

Diurnal Patterns of Unpleasant Mood: Associations with Neuroticism, Depression, and Anxiety

The literature on symptoms of depression has included diurnal changes in mood. The morning-worse pattern is commonly mentioned. This pattern is often associated with endogenous or vegetative symptoms (e.g., weight and appetite loss, loss of pleasure, psychomotor retardation). However, depression researchers have also identified an evening-worse pattern of mood. This pattern is sometimes thought to be associated with milder depressive symptoms, and may characterize chronic dysthymia rather than clinical depression. The present study examines a nonclinical sample to test the hypothesis that an evening-worse diurnal pattern of mood would be associated with trait neuroticism, anxiety, and subclinical depressive symptoms. An experience sampling methodology was employed to assess mood three times a day for 60 consecutive days. This allowed us to calculate a reliable aggregate score for diurnal mood patterns. The evening-worse pattern was associated with many neurotic features, with scores on depression and anxiety measures, and with a cognitive style indicative of hopelessness. Discussion focuses on how an evening-worse diurnal pattern of mood may be indicative of mild subclinical depression, chronic dysthymia, or personality traits associated with negative affectivity.