Foundational numerical capacities and the origins of dyscalculia

One important cause of very low attainment in arithmetic (dyscalculia) seems to be a core deficit in an inherited foundational capacity for numbers. According to one set of hypotheses, arithmetic ability is built on an inherited system responsible for representing approximate numerosity. One account holds that this is supported by a system for representing exactly a small number (less than or equal to four4) of individual objects. In these approaches, the core deficit in dyscalculia lies in either of these systems. An alternative proposal holds that the deficit lies in an inherited system for sets of objects and operations on them (numerosity coding) on which arithmetic is built. I argue that a deficit in numerosity coding, not in the approximate number system or the small number system, is responsible for dyscalculia. Nevertheless, critical tests should involve both longitudinal studies and intervention, and these have yet to be carried out.     

The intentional spring: a strategy for modeling systems that learn to perform intentional acts

In motor task learning by instruction, the instructor's skill and intention, which, initially, are extrinsic constraints on the learner's perceiving and acting, eventually become internalized as intrinsic constraints by the learner. How is this process to be described formally? This process takes place via a forcing function that acts both as an anticipatory (informing) influence and a hereditary (controlling) influence. A mathematical strategy is suggested by which such intentions and skills might be dynamically learned. A hypothetical task is discussed in which a blindfolded learner is motorically instructed to pull a spring to a specific target in a specific manner. The modeling strategy involves generalizing Hooke's law to the coupled instructor-spring-Learner system. Specifically, dual Volterra functions express the anticipatory and hereditary influences passed via an instructor-controlled forcing function on the shared spring. Boundary conditions (task goals) on the instructor-spring system, construed as a mathematical (self-adjoint) operator, are passed to the learner-spring system. Psychological interpretation is given to the involved mathematical operations that are passed, and mathematical (Hilbert-Schmidt's and Green's function) techniques are used to account for the release of the boundary conditions by the instructor and their absorption by the learner, and an appropriate change of their power spectra.     

Continuous executive function disruption interferes with application of an information integration categorization strategy

Category learning is often characterized as being supported by two separate learning systems. A verbal system learns rule-defined (RD) categories that can be described using a verbal rule and relies on executive functions (EFs) to learn via hypothesis testing. A nonverbal system learns non-rule-defined (NRD) categories that cannot be described by a verbal rule and uses automatic, procedural learning. The verbal system is dominant in that adults tend to use it during initial learning but may switch to the nonverbal system when the verbal system is unsuccessful. The nonverbal system has traditionally been thought to operate independently of EFs, but recent studies suggest that EFs may play a role in the nonverbal system—specifically, to facilitate the transition away from the verbal system. Accordingly, continuously interfering with EFs during the categorization process, so that EFs are never fully available to facilitate the transition, may be more detrimental to the nonverbal system than is temporary EF interference. Participants learned an NRD or an RD category while EFs were untaxed, taxed temporarily, or taxed continuously. When EFs were continuously taxed during NRD categorization, participants were less likely to use a nonverbal categorization strategy than when EFs were temporarily taxed, suggesting that when EFs were unavailable, the transition to the nonverbal system was hindered. For the verbal system, temporary and continuous interference had similar effects on categorization performance and on strategy use, illustrating that EFs play an important but different role in each of the category-learning systems.     

Towards a Theory of Reflexive Intentional Systems

(1) Intentional system: a system whose behaviour we may reliably predict via the intentional strategy, i.e., by interpreting its behaviour as a (more or less) rational consequence of its beliefs and desires. (2) Reflexive intentional system: a system that is able to interpret itself via the intentional strategy, and whose behaviour is, thus, influenced by an understanding of itself. All intentional systems behave in a meaningful way, but only reflexive intentional systems are aware of the meaning, Hence, only the latter are conscious of what they are doing.     

The effect of visual HMIs of a system assisting manual drivers in manoeuvre coordination in system limit and system failure situations

Ambiguous situations in traffic often require communication and cooperation between road users. In order to resolve these situations and increase cooperative driving behavior in situations of merging or turning left, manual drivers could be assisted by an advanced driver assistance system (ADAS) for cooperative driving. This simulator study investigated the behavior of drivers confronted with system limits and failures of such a system. The ADAS used in this study informed the driver about an upcoming cooperation situation and gave advice on how to behave (e.g. reduce speed, change lane). Two test situations were implemented: a system freeze and an unexpected event, which could not be detected by the system. In order to find the most fitting HMI solution, the place of presentation (head-up display (HUD) vs. instrument cluster) as well as the form of presentation (dynamic vs. symbolic) were varied. The results indicated that the most fitting HMI solution to support the driver in a complex coordinated driving situation is a dynamic HUD, mainly due to the positive effect on glance behavior. However, advantages of both forms of presentation were revealed, as each form of presentation increased the probability of recognition for one of the test situations. The fewest collisions took place with the dynamic form of presentation.     

When do people cooperate? The neuroeconomics of prosocial decision making

Understanding the roots of prosocial behavior is an interdisciplinary research endeavor that has generated an abundance of empirical data across many disciplines. This review integrates research findings from different fields into a novel theoretical framework that can account for when prosocial behavior is likely to occur. Specifically, we propose that the motivation to cooperate (or not), generated by the reward system in the brain (extending from the striatum to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex), is modulated by two neural networks: a cognitive control system (centered on the lateral prefrontal cortex) that processes extrinsic cooperative incentives, and/or a social cognition system (including the temporo-parietal junction, the medial prefrontal cortex and the amygdala) that processes trust and/or threat signals. The independent modulatory influence of incentives and trust on the decision to cooperate is substantiated by a growing body of neuroimaging data and reconciles the apparent paradox between economic versus social rationality in the literature, suggesting that we are in fact wired for both. Furthermore, the theoretical framework can account for substantial behavioral heterogeneity in prosocial behavior. Based on the existing data, we postulate that self-regarding individuals (who are more likely to adopt an economically rational strategy) are more responsive to extrinsic cooperative incentives and therefore rely relatively more on cognitive control to make (un)cooperative decisions, whereas other-regarding individuals (who are more likely to adopt a socially rational strategy) are more sensitive to trust signals to avoid betrayal and recruit relatively more brain activity in the social cognition system. Several additional hypotheses with respect to the neural roots of social preferences are derived from the model and suggested for future research.     

A software system for real-time control of psychological experiments

This paper describes an all-purpose experimental system, “APES,” for use in a microprocessor-controlled behavioral pharmacology laboratory. APES is an assembly language program that can run on any of the DEC PDP-11 family processors under an RT-11 single-job operating system. Its main purpose is the real-time control of psychological experimentation. The capabilities of the system are: (1) system generation of all operant or Pavlovian conditioning paradigms, (2) collection and storage of both behavioral and physiological data in a machine-readable format for later statistical analysis, and (3) operation that can be accomplished by individuals who have no computer programming experience.     

The cybernetic approach to the treatment of neurotic disorders

This work is an attempt at a cybernetic analysis of the process of treatment of neurotic disorders. This approach is based on the consideration of a patient as an object of control. Assuming that the neurosis is an expression of some imbalance in an organism, the process of treatment is reduced to the exertion of influence on the system thrown out of balance (i.e., the patient) so that its homeostasis with the environment is restored. Thus the treatment of neurotic disorders consists of the use of negative feedback, both internal (those within the patients organism) and external (those within the system created by the interaction of patient and environment).     

Imagining better societies: A social psychological framework for the study of utopian thinking and collective action

We present an integrative theoretical model that specifies social psychological mechanisms by which utopian thinking, which activates the social imagination, may enhance collective action intentions oriented toward social change and human progress. The model synthesizes complementary insights from interdisciplinary research programs on utopianism, hope, construal level, and system justification to identify mechanisms by which imagining better societies: (a) increases social hope, (b) yields an abstract mindset that bridges the psychological distance between the status quo (“here and now”) and a better possible future, (c) decreases system justification motivation, and (d) promotes social justice‐oriented forms of collective action.     

Cultural values,system justification,meritocratic beliefs,and evaluations of governments' performance in handling the COVID-19 crisis

System justification and meritocratic beliefs legitimize the status quo of economic, social, and political arrangements, and may correlate with favourable evaluations of governments' performance during the COVID-19 pandemic. This study furthers research on this topic by examining (1) the cultural value antecedents of system justification and meritocratic beliefs, and (2) the differential effects of these on attitudes toward ingroups and outgroups from an intergroup perspective. The results show that collectivist values positively predict system justification and meritocratic beliefs, whereas a similar effect was not observed for individualist values. As hypothesized, system justification motivation was positively associated with favourable evaluation of the Chinese government (an ingroup). By contrast, system justification and meritocratic beliefs were negatively associated with evaluation of the American government (an outgroup). We discussed the implications for understandings of the cultural value bases of system justification and meritocratic beliefs, and the relevance of the lens of intergroup relations in studying those beliefs.     

Symmetry axiom of Haken–Kelso–Bunz coordination dynamics revisited in the context of cognitive activity

We present an axiomatic derivation of a model proposed by Haken, Kelso, and Bunz (1985) that describes dynamical aspects of the rhythmic coordination between two limbs. Elaboration of this model has included a symmetry parameter that captures the coordination consequences of an inherent or imposed frequency difference between the limbs. We modified one of the axioms involved in the model derivation, a symmetry axiom, in order to incorporate a new symmetry parameter. This new parameter defines a shift between (a) the laboratory coordinate system, in which the behavior is observed, and (b) a second, postulated coordinate system. It is this second coordinate system, in which the relevant state dynamics is assumed to take place and in which the state dynamics evolves under the impact of an attractor. The state dynamics as described in the attractor coordinate system is then mapped by means of the new symmetry parameter to the laboratory coordinate system. We discuss analytically the bifurcation diagram of the model and determine main effects and interaction effects of manipulations related to the symmetry parameters and related to the mode of coordination (in-phase and anti-phase). The theoretical results are brought to bear on the challenging experimental observation that concurrent cognitive activity (counting, encoding, retrieving, sentence analysis) changes the location of the bimanual coordination attractor but not its strength. The theoretical results suggest that cognitive activity may have the effect it has because it shifts the attractor coordinate system relative to the laboratory coordinate system.     

Enhanced prenatal auditory experience facilitates species-specific visual responsiveness in bobwhite quail chicks (Colinus virginianus)

Premature stimulation of a later developing sensory system is known to impact the functioning of earlier developing sensory systems. For example, exposure to premature (prenatal) visual experience results in a decline in species-typical auditory responsiveness in several precocial bird species. The present study examined the influence of experiential enhancement of an earlier developing sensory system on a later developing modality. Specifically, the influence of enhanced prenatal auditory stimulation on subsequent postnatal auditory and visual functioning of bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) chicks was assessed. Results indicate that birds receiving exposure to increased amounts of unaltered, species-typical embryonic vocalizations before hatching show species-typical auditory responsiveness at both 12 hr and 24 hr after hatching, but exhibit an accelerated pattern of species-typical visual responsiveness by 24 hr of age. These findings suggest that enhancement of an earlier developing sensory system can facilitate the development of a later developing sensory system and serve to demonstrate the dynamic nature of early perceptual organization.     

A simple 5-DoF MR-compatible motion signal measurement system

The purpose of this study was to develop a simple motion measurement system with magnetic resonance (MR) compatibility and safety. The motion measurement system proposed here can measure 5-DoF motion signals without deteriorating the MR images, and it has no effect on the intense and homogeneous main magnetic field, the temporal-gradient magnetic field (which varies rapidly with time), the transceiver radio frequency (RF) coil, and the RF pulse during MR data acquisition. A three-axis accelerometer and a two-axis gyroscope were used to measure 5-DoF motion signals, and Velcro was used to attach a sensor module to a finger or wrist. To minimize the interference between the MR imaging system and the motion measurement system, nonmagnetic materials were used for all electric circuit components in an MR shield room. To remove the effect of RF pulse, an amplifier, modulation circuit, and power supply were located in a shielded case, which was made of copper and aluminum. The motion signal was modulated to an optic signal using pulse width modulation, and the modulated optic signal was transmitted outside the MR shield room using a high-intensity light-emitting diode and an optic cable. The motion signal was recorded on a PC by demodulating the transmitted optic signal into an electric signal. Various kinematic variables, such as angle, acceleration, velocity, and jerk, can be measured or calculated by using the motion measurement system developed here. This system also enables motion tracking by extracting the position information from the motion signals. It was verified that MR images and motion signals could reliably be measured simultaneously.     

Spinners and Chartmoves:

A practical child management procedure is presented which incorporates self-recording, variable schedules of reinforcement, and a practical data collection system. The proposed system has two basic components, chartmoves and spinners. The chart is generally a picture with 30 to 100 dots and functions as a data collection system and indicates when a reinforcer has been programmed. Reinforcers are set up by randomly placing large dots (reinforcer dot), which make up the picture. When a child exhibits an appropriate target behavior, he is allowed to connect two dots on the picture. Each dot is covered with a scratch off ink; if the last dot connected is large the child receives a reinforcer. Chartmoves (connection of dots) are dated and initialed by the teacher allowing a record of progress to be kept with little effort by the teacher or parent. The second component to the system is the spinner. The spinner is an unevenly divided circle (generally five sections) with each section containing a reinforcer, plus an arrow, which the child spins to indicate which reinforcer he will receive. The combined system both the chart and spinner represents two variable schedules of reinforcement (the random reinforcement dots and the spinner), the child self-records the data on the chart, and the random aspect of the spinner reduces reinforcement satiation. This system has been used successfully with elementary ages children in the classroom, in the home as a contingency management program, and as a home and school program in which school behaviors are consequated in the home with the system.     

A model of top-down gain control in the auditory system

To evaluate a model of top-down gain control in the auditory system, 6 participants were asked to identify 1-kHz pure tones differing only in intensity. There were three 20-session conditions: (1) four soft tones (25, 30, 35, and 40 dB SPL) in the set; (2) those four soft tones plus a 50-dB SPL tone; and (3) the four soft tones plus an 80-dB SPL tone. The results were well described by a top-down, nonlinear gain-control system in which the amplifier’s gain depended on the highest intensity in the stimulus set. Individual participants’ identification judgments were generally compatible with an equal-variance signal-detection model in which the mean locations of the distribution of effects along the decision axis were determined by the operation of this nonlinear amplification system.     

The Constitution as an Axiomatic System

The Constitution is considered as an informal axiomatic system. The strategy proposed by the authors rests on the following propositions: (1) axioms are considered as contextual definitions of those concepts by means of which they are formulated; and (2) the main requirement for this type of system is internal consistency. The first proposition is necessary for considering the Constitution as an informal axiomatic system, while the second is sufficient, because the approach proposed, apart from consistency, must certainly consider the requirements for formal axiomatic systems, such as independence and completeness. The authors argue that the Constitution can be compared to axiomatic constructions in modern science in the sense that is given in the research on the logic and methodology of deductive sciences. This analogy is appropriate to the extent to which constitutional provisions are interpreted as the basic elements of the legal system, just as in the formal sciences axioms are regarded as basic principles that define the main features of the formal system. This means that the Constitution itself is seen as coherent, consistent discourse that contextually defines the meaning of the basic terms of the legal system.     

A multipurpose activity platform utilized in the open-field setting

An automated multipurpose activity platform (MAP) that can be used to measure activity in the horizontal plane is described. Detection of the position of a small-bodied animal is based on completion of an electronic circuit in one or several cells of a 21 by 21 matrix below the floor. The MAP is constructed on the basis of an 11 by 11 matrix, but, through electronic averaging, operates functionally on the basis of a 21 by 21 matrix. The MAP has no built-in data storage facility and needs to be interfaced with a recording system. The system has been successfully utilized in measuring open-field activity of the rats.