Identifying between‐person and within‐person factors to enhance understanding of observed score profiles

This study aims to reparameterize ordinary factors into between‐ and within‐person factor effects and utilize an array of the within‐person factor loadings as a latent profile which encapsulates all score responses of individuals in a population. To illustrate, the Woodcock–Johnson III (WJ‐III) tests of cognitive abilities were analysed and one between‐ and two within‐person factors were identified. The scoring patterns of individuals in the WJ‐III sample were interpreted according to the within‐person factor patterns. Regression analyses were performed to examine how much the within‐person factors accounted for the person scoring patterns and criterion variables. Finally, the importance and applications of the between‐ and within‐person factors are discussed.     

Self‐Ratings of Political Skill in Job Application: A within‐ and between‐subjects field experiment

Political skill is the ability to understand others and use that knowledge to influence others to act in ways that enhance one's personal and/or organizational objectives. The Political Skill Inventory ( Ferris et al., 2005 ) assesses this talent, and has potential for use in personnel decision making. However, central organizational stakeholders are concerned about the distortion of self‐rating scores in job application; consequently, we examined the effects of a job application situation on self‐ratings of political skill in a field experiment with 205 job incumbents. The findings showed consistently that the relationship of self‐ratings of political skill and job performance ratings by supervisors (ρ=.30, p<.01) were not distorted in job application. Implications and limitations are discussed.     

Memory for between‐list and within‐list information in amnesic patients with temporal lobe and diencephalic lesions

Patients with medial temporal lobe damage and diencephalic damage were compared on two tests of verbal temporal order memory: between‐list discrimination and within‐list discrimination. Both patient groups were impaired relative to a group of healthy control participants. In addition, despite comparable levels of item recognition, the diencephalic group was impaired relative to the medial temporal lobe group on both within‐list and between‐list discrimination. Temporal order memory for between‐list information showed a significant correlation with a composite measure of recognition memory, and the results are discussed in terms of the patients' reliance on familiarity and distance‐based processes to make temporal order judgments.     

Emotional arousal and gender differences in aggression: A meta‐analysis

This meta‐analysis investigated the possibility that gender differences in aggression, and the variability in these differences, are a function of gender differences in the regulation of arousal generated in emotionally evocative contexts. The sample of studies for this analysis was based on an exhaustive search of the relevant research reports from 1965–1999. Studies were excluded from the sample if they were case studies; investigated spousal/familial or societal violence, war, suicide, or political violence; involved clinical or deviant participants; included fewer than 10 participants; included all male, all female, all non‐Caucasian, or non‐US/non‐Canadian participants. Based on previous evidence that males may be more easily aroused by aggressive‐relevant emotional stimuli than females, and that males may have more difficulty regulating emotionally arousing states than females, we hypothesized that the magnitude of the gender differences in aggression would covary, in a nonlinear manner, with the emotional evocativeness of the study context. Consistent with our hypothesis, the magnitude of gender differences in aggression was relatively small in research contexts that appeared to produce no or large increments in emotional arousal and larger (favoring males) in contexts that appeared to produce small or medium increments in emotional arousal. Aggr. Behav. 28:366–393, 2002. © 2002 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

The simultaneous consideration of between‐participants and within‐participants analyses in research on predictors of behaviours: The issue of dependence

Although there is wide acceptance among personality and social psychologists of the importance of performing both between‐participants and within‐participants analyses to obtain a more complete picture of the phenomena under investigation, such analyses are rare (Mishela, 1990). Research on the predictors of behaviour, particularly concerning variables such as attitude, subjective norm, affect, cognition, and intention provides an exception, where the results from within‐participants analyses are sometimes compared to the results from between‐participants analyses. These comparisons raise the issue of whether the two types of analyses are independent of each other (and whether they can be validly compared), which is the topic of the present paper. Although we show that there is dependence, which suggests that it is a bad idea to compare both kinds of analyses, we also show that the degree of dependence approaches zero as the number of participants and items increase. Thus, with a sufficiently large design, the degree of dependence is unimportant, and therefore is no obstacle to the simultaneous consideration of both within‐participants and between‐participants analyses. How large is large enough? A set of computer simulations suggests that 15 participants and 15 items is sufficient, though we provide data from which researchers can designate their own criteria. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Emotion and underlying concerns during couples' conflict: An investigation of within‐person change

This study investigated how emotion changes within persons across different episodes of romantic relationship conflict. Presumably, changes in different types of emotion are linked to changes in the types of underlying adaptive concerns people have during conflict, which in turn are linked to changes in the types of emotion that one's partner is perceived to express. Over the span of 8 weeks, 105 college students in romantic relationships completed between 2 and 5 online assessments of a recent relationship conflict. Hierarchical linear modeling was used to distinguish within‐person effects from between‐person effects. Results confirmed expected differences between types of emotion and types of underlying concern, indicated that most effects occur at the within‐person level, and identified mediating pathways.     

Repeated,within‐session resurgence

Resurgence is a reliable, transient effect that only occasionally is replicated more than once within a single experiment or subject. In the present experiments, within‐session resurgence was generated repeatedly by dividing individual sessions into three phases (Training, Alternative‐Reinforcement, and Resurgence‐Test). In Experiments 1 and 2, resurgence reliably occurred in most of the 22‐30 daily sessions when responding was reinforced on, respectively, fixed‐ and variable‐interval schedules. Resurgence magnitude and duration did decrease across replications for some subjects, but not for others. To examine the utility of the procedure in studying the effects of an independent variable on resurgence, in Experiment 3 the effects of rich and lean baseline and alternative reinforcement rates on resurgence were compared. The target response was eliminated more rapidly, resurgence occurred more often, and usually was greater following rich alternative reinforcement rates. Resurgence was of greater magnitude when the baseline reinforcement rate was relatively lean compared to the alternative reinforcement rate. These experiments provide a reliable method for generating resurgence within individual sessions, instead of across multiple‐session conditions, that can be repeated over many successive sessions.     

Antecedents of mirror self‐recognition of toddlers: Emotional availability,birth order,and gender

The present study employed a longitudinal design for examining the role of emotional availability of child–mother dyads, birth order of children, and their gender as determinants of mirror self‐recognition of toddlers. It was hypothesized that toddlers who maintained more optimal emotional availability with mother at the age of 12 months would tend to identify themselves more readily at the age of 20 months. We assumed further that first‐born children and females would identify themselves more readily than males and younger siblings. A sample of 54 nonrisk children and their mothers was investigated. Path analysis model showed that emotional availability partly predicted self‐recognition: responsive toddlers identified themselves more often than less responsive peers. No significant effects were found for the other scales of emotional availability. A nonlinear birth order effect was observed, with second‐born children being less likely to show mirror self‐recognition than first‐borns or third‐borns. Child gender was not significantly associated with self‐recognition at the age of 20 months. The data showed further that birth order was significantly linked with components of emotional availability. No significant correlations were found between emotional availability scores and child gender. Results were discussed in light of the different components of emotional availability, and the psychological correlates of ordinal position in the family. ©2002 Michigan Association for Infant Mental Health.     

Emotional awareness,gender, and suspiciousness

We investigated the causal relation between emotional awareness (EA) and suspiciousness, and whether this relation is moderated by gender. After inducing an unpleasant mood, we manipulated EA by having participants read one of two versions of a story (the high EA condition provided cues to what the participant was feeling and why, whereas the low EA condition did not). Following the manipulation, one sample of participants completed a measure of suspiciousness, and a second, independent sample of participants described their emotional state. Emotional Awareness Condition×Gender effects were obtained for suspiciousness and EA. Men in the low EA condition reported significantly higher levels of suspiciousness and lower levels of EA than men in the high EA condition. Women in both conditions reported equally high levels of EA, which were greater than those of men in both conditions, and the manipulation did not affect their levels of suspiciousness.     

Emotional arousal and negative affect in marital conflict: the influence of gender,conflict structure,and demand‐withdrawal

This report covers two studies that examined how spouses' emotional arousal and negative affect in response to marital conflict are shaped by gender, conflict structure, and demand‐withdraw communication. In Study 1, 86 couples participated in a video analogue presentation procedure, and in Study 2, 32 couples participated in an observational methodology. In both studies, spouses' evaluative reports of their emotional arousal and negative affect were collected within two experimental conditions in which either the husband's or the wife's issue was discussed. In both studies, husbands—but not wives—reported lower levels of post‐interaction arousal and negative affect in the wife's issue condition than in the husband's issue condition. In both studies, husbands' as well as wives' level of emotional arousal was positively associated with their level of negative affect. In Study 2, husbands who were less demanding and more withdrawing during marital conflict were less aroused after the discussion. In contrast, wives reported more emotional arousal and negative affect as they were more withdrawing and less demanding, respectively. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Emotional labour strategies and job burnout: A meta-analysis of Chinese employees

Emotional labour strategies have a significant impact on job burnout. However, current research results are controversial and unclear. A meta-analysis was conducted to explore the relationship between emotional labour strategies (surface acting and deep acting) and job burnout. A total of 84 empirical studies that included 28,242 participants were selected. The meta-analysis of the relationships between job burnout and surface acting and deep acting included 84 and 75 independent samples respectively. The results show that surface acting had a positive association (r = 0.25) with job burnout, whereas deep acting (r = −0.27) had a negative association with job burnout. Occupational types and measures of emotional labour strategies moderated the relationship between emotional labour strategies and job burnout, but this relationship was not moderated by measures of job burnout.     

Emotional awareness,gender, and peculiar body-related beliefs

Research has broadly established that emotional disturbances are associated with body image disturbances. This is the first study to examine links between facets of emotional awareness and peculiar body-related beliefs (PBB), or beliefs about an imagined or slight defect in one's appearance or bodily functioning. In a sample of college students (n=216), we found that low emotional clarity (the extent to which the type and source of emotions are understood) was associated with higher PBB in both women and men, and the relation between emotional clarity and PBB was further moderated by attention to emotions (the extent to which emotions are attended to) and gender. Men with low attention to emotions and women with high attention to emotions both experienced higher levels of PBB if they also reported low levels of emotional clarity. This interactive effect was not attributable to shared variance with body mass index, neuroticism or affect intensity.     

Construct and Criterion‐Related Validation of a Measure of Emotional Reasoning Skills: A two‐study investigation

In a two‐study investigation, the construct and criterion‐related validities of the Test of Emotional Intelligence, an ability‐based measure of emotional reasoning skills, were examined. In Study 1, as hypothesized, emotional reasoning skills were related to emotion recognition ability (i.e., as measured by Diagnostic Analysis of Nonverbal Accuracy), emotional empathy, and three measures of successful social functioning (i.e., social astuteness, interpersonal influence, and apparent sincerity) assessed by peers, after controlling for personality and occupational environment characteristics. In Study 2, results from a predictive validation study demonstrated that Emotional Intelligence explained additional variance in overall job performance ratings beyond general mental ability and personality traits. Contributions and implications of this research investigation, limitations, and directions for future research are discussed.     

The role of target gender and race in children's encoding of category‐neutral person information

Two studies are reported that examine whether children encode category‐neutral information about target persons with respect to gender and race categories. In Study 1, using a semi‐naturalistic adaptation of the ‘who said what?’ technique (Taylor, Fiske, Etcoff, & Ruderman, 1978), children of 5, 8 and 11 years were asked to recall peers' choices in a preference task. For all three age groups, significantly more within‐sex than between‐sex confusions were found, indicating that children had encoded neutral information about targets with respect to their sex. In Study 2, 5‐, 8‐ and 11‐year‐old children were presented with a conventional ‘who said what?’ task in which they were shown four photographs, two of black children and two of white children, along with 16 statements attributed to the target children (i.e. four statements to each child). Following this, 16 statement cards had to be assigned to photographs of the four target persons to indicate ‘who said what’. Across all age groups there were significantly more within‐ than between‐race confusions. The evidence from these two studies indicates that even for category‐neutral information, gender and race play an important role in children's initial encoding of others' behaviour.     

Emotional Schema Therapy: A Meta‐experiential Model

The emotional schema model proposes that individuals differ in their interpretations, evaluations, and strategies about emotional experience. Fourteen dimensions that are related to problematic strategies of emotion regulation are identified. Specific interventions for several of these strategies are identified, and examples of implementation are described. Finally, problematic schemas about emotions—both on the part of patients and therapists—are described, and interventions for addressing these in therapy are provided.