Personality and intelligence as predictors of creativity

Participants completed the Big Five NEO-FFI (Costa & McCrae, 1992) as a personality measure, the Wonderlic Personnel Test (Wonderlic, 1992) as an intelligence measure, and four measures of creativity: Guilford’s (1967) unusual uses divergent thinking test; the Biographical Inventory of Creative Behaviours; a self-rated measure of creativity; and the Barron–Welsh Art Scale to measure creative judgement. Extraversion was significantly related to all four measures of creativity. Intelligence failed to add any incremental variance in predicting the creativity scores. Multiple regression indicated that up to 47% of the variance in divergent thinking scores can be accounted for by the Big Five personality traits. Personality correlates to creativity vary as a function of the creativity measure.     

Personality, intelligence and proof-reading

Two studies sought to determine personality and cognitive ability correlates of proof-reading. In both studies candidates were given 5 min to identify up to 55 errors in a 920 word, two page document. In Study 1, which tested 240 school children, fluid intelligence (as measured by the Baddeley Reasoning Test) was the highest correlate of proof-reading (r = .30). Eleven percent of the variance in total attempted scores was accounted for by intelligence, Introversion and low Conscientiousness. In the second study 70 undergraduates completed the same proof-reading test along with two intelligence tests (Baddeley Reasoning Test; Wonderlic Personnel Test) and a more robust personality measure (NEO-FFI). Proof-reading was correlated with both intelligence tests (Baddeley r = .45; Wonderlic r = .40). More of the variance was accounted for in the total attempted-score of errors than for a correct errors-detected score. When the two intelligence and five personality trait scores were regressed on to the proof-reading test score over a quarter of the variance (Adj R² = .28) was accounted for, but only the Baddeley test was a significant predictor (Beta = .39).     

Personality,intelligence and proof-reading

Two studies sought to determine personality and cognitive ability correlates of proof-reading. In both studies candidates were given 5 min to identify up to 55 errors in a 920 word, two page document. In Study 1, which tested 240 school children, fluid intelligence (as measured by the Baddeley Reasoning Test) was the highest correlate of proof-reading (r = .30). Eleven percent of the variance in total attempted scores was accounted for by intelligence, Introversion and low Conscientiousness. In the second study 70 undergraduates completed the same proof-reading test along with two intelligence tests (Baddeley Reasoning Test; Wonderlic Personnel Test) and a more robust personality measure (NEO-FFI). Proof-reading was correlated with both intelligence tests (Baddeley r = .45; Wonderlic r = .40). More of the variance was accounted for in the total attempted-score of errors than for a correct errors-detected score. When the two intelligence and five personality trait scores were regressed on to the proof-reading test score over a quarter of the variance (Adj R² = .28) was accounted for, but only the Baddeley test was a significant predictor (Beta = .39).     

Personality and Intelligence: Gender,the Big Five,Self‐Estimated and Psychometric Intelligence

This paper reports on two studies that investigated the relationship between the Big Five personality traits, self‐estimates of intelligence (SEI), and scores on two psychometrically validated intelligence tests. In study 1 a total of 100 participants completed the NEO‐PI‐R, the Wonderlic Personnel Test and the Baddeley Reasoning Test, and estimated their own intelligence on a normal distribution curve. Multiple regression showed that psychometric intelligence was predicted by Conscientiousness and SEI, while SEI was predicted by gender, Neuroticism (notably anxiety) and Agreeableness (notably modesty). Personality was a better predictor of SEI than of psychometric intelligence itself. Study 2 attempted to explore the relationship between SEI and psychometric intelligence. A total of 130 participants completed the NEO‐PI‐R, the Baddeley Reasoning Test, and the S & M Spatial intelligence test. In addition, SEI and participants conceptions of intelligence were also examined. In combination with gender and previous IQ test experience, these variables were found to predict about 11% of the variance in SEI. SEI was the only significant predictor of psychometrically measured intelligence. Inconsistencies between results of the two studies, theoretical and applied implications, and limitations of this work are discussed.     

Personality predicts academic performance: Evidence from two longitudinal university samples

To what extent and which personality traits predict academic performance was investigated in two longitudinal studies of two British university samples. Academic performance was assessed throughout a three years period and via multiple criteria (e.g., exams and final-year project). In addition several indicators of academic behaviour, e.g., absenteeism, essay writing, tutors’ exam predictions, were also examined with regard to both academic performance and personality traits. In sample 1 (N=70), the Big Five personality factors (Costa & McCrae, 1992)—particularly Neuroticism and Conscientiousness—were found to predict overall final exam marks over and above several academic predictors, accounting for more than 10% of unique variance in overall exam marks. Results suggest that Neuroticism may impair academic performance, while Conscientiousness may lead to higher academic achievement. In sample 2 (N=75) the EPQ-R (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1985) was used as the personality measure and results showed the three superfactors were the most powerful predictor of academic performance, accounting for nearly 17% of unique variance in overall exam results. It is demonstrated that (like Neuroctisim) Psychoticism could limit academic success. The present results provide evidence supporting the inclusion of well-established personality measures in academic selection procedures, and run counter to the traditional view of ability measures as the exclusive psychometric correlate of academic performance.     

The relationship between measures of creativity and schizotypy

The aim of this study was to determine the extent to which a measure of multidimensional schizotypy and intelligence predicted measures of creativity, as assessed by self-rated creativity, a measure of the creative personality (CPS: Gough, 1979) and an inventory of creative behaviours. Additionally an aggregation of the three different measures; total creativity was examined. 140 participants completed the creativity measures, a general intelligence test (Wonderlic Personnel Test: Wonderlic, 1992) in addition to a multidimensional schizotypy inventory (O-LIFE: Mason, Claridge, & Jackson, 1995). The Unusual Experiences and Impulsive Nonconformity dimensions of the O-LIFE were positively and significantly related to creativity. The Cognitive Disorganisation dimension was found to be negatively and significantly related to creativity. The implications of the findings were discussed.     

I used to like it but now I don't: The effect of the transfer test in Northern Ireland on pupils' intrinsic motivation

Background. Research has suggested that the pressure of exams could undermine pupils' interest in their subjects, but almost all of this research has been conducted in laboratory settings. The Transfer Test in Northern Ireland provides an unusual opportunity to assess the effects of exam pressure in real life because some 10‐ and 11‐year‐olds sit a Transfer Test to be admitted to grammar school while others are not tested until they are 14. Aim. To assess the effect of exams on pupils' interest in their subjects both during the period before the exam and after the results are known. Sample. The sample comprised 66 pupils preparing to sit the Transfer Test and 55 not preparing for the test. Method. Pupils' interest in their school subjects was assessed by questionnaires administered 2 weeks before the Transfer Test and then again 2 weeks after the results were announced. Results. Surprisingly, prior to sitting the test, there was no significant difference in motivation between the test and no‐test pupils. However, after sitting the test, the motivation of the test pupils decreased significantly relative to their no‐test counterparts, despite the fact that most achieved the grades they needed for admission to grammar school. Conclusions. Exams provide a valuable tool for assessing academic progress, but under some circumstances they can reduce pupils' interest in the subjects they are studying.     

The effect of month of birth on the attainments of primary and secondary school pupils

Background Previous research has produced conflicting results regarding the effects of season of birth and age‐position on cognitive attainments. In Northern Ireland the school year divides the summer season into two providing an opportunity to evaluate the relative contribution of season of birth and age‐position effects. Aims To investigate the relationship between attainment in literacy skills and month of birth for primary and secondary school pupils and to determine the relationship between motor skills and month of birth in primary school pupils. Sample One thousand one hundred and twenty four primary school pupils participated, and results for key stage 3 (KS3) English and GCSE English Language, for 3,493 Year 10 and 3,697 Year 12 secondary school pupils, respectively, were obtained. Method Primary school pupils were individually assessed using standardised reading and spelling tests, as well as tests of motor skill. They were also assessed using a standardised group reading test in their class groups. For the secondary school pupils, the results for two year cohorts, in KS3 English and GCSE English language, respectively, were analysed. Results For the primary school pupils there was evidence of both a season of birth and an age‐position effect on all of the cognitive measures, particularly in the early years of schooling. There was, also, evidence of a significant age‐position effect at both KS3 and GCSE in favour of the older pupils. For the younger primary school pupils there was evidence of significant age‐position effects on both motor measures. Conclusions The findings from the present study suggest that month of birth may be related to both season of birth and age‐position effects. These effects may be compounded, particularly in the early years of primary school, when summer born children are youngest in their year, as in England. In Northern Ireland, age‐position effects are also evident in secondary school public examination results, which may have implications for long‐term life choices.     

Consistency in reasoning test scores over time

Background: UK schools have a long history of using reasoning tests, most frequently of Verbal Reasoning (VR), Non‐Verbal Reasoning (NVR), and to a lesser extent Quantitative Reasoning (QR). Results are used for identifying students' learning needs, for grouping students, for identifying underachievement, and for providing indicators of future academic performance. Despite this widespread use there are little empirical data on the long‐term consistency of VR, QR and NVR as discrete abilities. Aims: To evaluate and compare the consistency of VR, QR and NVR scores over a 3‐year period, and to explore the influence of the secondary school on pupils' progress in the tests. Sample: Data were collected on a longitudinal sample of over 10,000 pupils who completed the Cognitive Abilities Test Second Edition in year 6 (age 10+) and year 9 (age 13+), and GCSE public examinations in year 11 (age 15+). Methods: Correlation coefficients and change scores for individual pupils are calculated. Multilevel modelling is used to determine school effects on reasoning scores and GCSE public examination results. Results: The results reveal high correlations in scores over time, ranging from .87 for VR to .76 for NVR, but also show around one‐sixth of pupils on the VR test and one‐fifth of pupils on the QR and NVR tests change their scores by 10 or more standard score points. Schools account for only a small part of the total variation in reasoning score, although they account for a much greater proportion of the variation in measures of attainment such as GCSE. School effects on pupils' progress in the reasoning tests between age 10 and age 13 are relatively modest. Conclusions: Reasoning tests make excellent baseline assessments for secondary schools. Some practical and policy implications for schools are discussed.     

The Relationship of Reliability and Validity of Personality Tests to Frame‐of‐Reference Instructions and Within‐Person Inconsistency

The efficacy of both frame‐of‐reference (FOR) instructions and a measure of within‐person inconsistency in predicting grade point average was investigated. The IPIP Big Five personality questionnaire was given to 329 students with generic instructions and ‘at school’ FOR instructions. The Wonderlic Personnel Test was also administered. A measure of within‐person inconsistency was created based on the standard deviations of responses to items within the same Big Five dimension. The validity of conscientiousness was greater when FOR instructions were given. The measure of within‐person inconsistency provided incremental validity over that of conscientiousness and cognitive ability. Additionally, within‐person inconsistency moderated the relationship between conscientiousness and performance for the participants without the FOR instructions. Practical implications are discussed.     

Recruitment Consultant Revenue: Relationships with IQ,personality, and emotional intelligence

The objective of this paper is to address the predictive validity of the workplace Swinburne University Emotional Intelligence Test. The first aim of this research project was to identify whether financial revenue earned by consultants in an Australian professional recruitment company were related to their levels of emotional intelligence (EI). The second aim was to assess whether EI competencies were more strongly related to revenue performance than measures of IQ and personality. The study consisted of 100 recruitment consultants from a large Australian‐based company who had their IQ assessed and completed a questionnaire battery consisting of measures of personality and EI. Revenue accrued by the recruitment consultants was also collected and related to the psychometric measures. Results showed that emotional competencies and personality traits are valuable predictors of job performance as measured by the revenue accrued by recruitment consultants. Further to this, the EI competencies were observed to be more strongly related to this measure of performance, and were able to predict a significant proportion of variance in performance in comparison to IQ and personality.     

The Sternberg Triarchic Abilities Test (STAT) as a measure of academic achievement and general intelligence

The degree to which practical, creative, and analytical abilities, measured by the Sternberg Triarchic Abilities Test (STAT) (Sternberg, 1993), significantly contribute to the prediction of academic achievement, independent of general intelligence, was investigated. Although Sternberg et al. (2000) claim that the STAT is not related to, nor a measure of, general intelligence, data obtained by Sternberg, Ferrari, Clinkenbeard, and Grigorenko (1996), found that STAT scores were significantly correlated with measures of general intelligence. In the present study, introductory psychology midterm examination grades, STAT scores, and Wonderlic Personnel Test scores (as a measure of general intelligence), were obtained from undergraduate students at the University of Western Ontario (N=150). Total STAT scores and each of the STAT subsection scores were significantly related to Wonderlic test scores, P<0.01, and the STAT subsections were significantly related to each other, P<0.01. The partial correlations between midterm grades and creative, practical, analytical, and total STAT scores, with the variance due to the Wonderlic test removed, were also found to be significant for practical and for total STAT scores, P<0.05, but nonsignificant for creative and analytical STAT scores. A factor analysis including midterm examination grades, the Wonderlic test, and each of the STAT subsections revealed a single general factor. Thus, some results supported Sternberg but others were contrary to his claims.     

Which factors best account for academic success: Those which college students can control or those they cannot?

This study integrates research linking academic performance with individual differences and class attendance. Whereas individual differences (ability, traits) are not controllable by students, students can control their attendance, study and work. Thus we sought to determine the extent to which “control” and “no control” variables predict academic performance. With N = 338, measures of verbal ability, the five-factor model, GPA, academic goals, and study behavior were used to predict exams, attendance, and independent projects completed. Uncontrollable factors accounted for 37% of the variance in exam scores; controllable factors accounted for an additional 6–10%. We also found an interaction such that, relative to low-ability peers, high-ability students’ attendance most enhanced their exam performance. Attendance was best accounted for by GPA, study and work. Projects were best predicted by low verbal ability and by personality traits.     

Predicting psychological health: assessing the incremental validity of emotional intelligence beyond personality,Type A behaviour,and daily hassles

Although some research has linked emotional intelligence (EI) and psychological health, little research has examined EI's ability to predict health outcomes after controlling for related constructs, or EI's ability to moderate the stressor–strain relationship. The present study explored the relationships among EI (as assessed by a trait‐based measure, the EQ‐i), Big Five personality factors, Type A Behaviour Pattern (TABP), daily hassles, and psychological health/strain factors (in terms of perceived well‐being, strain, and three components of burnout). The EQ‐i was highly correlated with most aspects of personality and TABP. After controlling for the impact of hassles, personality, and TABP, the five EQ‐i subscales accounted for incremental variance in two of the five psychological health outcomes. However, the EQ‐i scales failed to moderate the hassles–strain relationship. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The dimensional structure of the emotional self‐efficacy scale (ESES)

This study aims to investigate the underlying dimensionality of the emotional self‐efficacy scale (ESES) and determine its relationship with measures of ability emotional intelligence (EI) (Mayer–Salovey–Caruso EI Test), trait EI (Trait EI Questionnaire), personality, and cognitive ability. Participants included 822 undergraduate students and 263 graduates already in the workplace. Analyses of the data suggested a multidimensional factor structure for the ESES. The measure was found to correlate with trait EI and showed expected correlations with personality. It did not correlate with ability EI or cognitive ability. These findings are discussed and are interpreted as offering support for the use of the ESES as a reliable measure of emotional self‐efficacy.     

Personality traits measured at baseline can predict academic performance in upper secondary school three years late

The aim of the present study was to explore the ability of personality to predict academic performance in a longitudinal study of a Swedish upper secondary school sample. Academic performance was assessed throughout a three‐year period via final grades from the compulsory school and upper secondary school. The Big Five personality factors (Costa & McCrae, 1992 ) – particularly Conscientiousness and Neuroticism – were found to predict overall academic performance, after controlling for general intelligence. Results suggest that Conscientiousness, as measured at the age of 16, can explain change in academic performance at the age of 19. The effect of Neuroticism on Conscientiousness indicates that, as regarding getting good grades, it is better to be a bit neurotic than to be stable. The study extends previous work by assessing the relationship between the Big Five and academic performance over a three‐year period. The results offer educators avenues for improving educational achievement.     

Revisiting the predictive validity of emotional intelligence: self-report versus ability-based measures

In response to general press assertions that training emotionally intelligent children will lead to great rewards, this study examined the relationship between emotional intelligence (EI) and academic achievement in college students, using both self-report and ability-based measures of EI. Specifically, the Mayer, Salovey, Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT, an ability-based measure) and the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i, a self-report measure) were used to predict academic achievement. Achievement was operationalized as the respondents’ cumulative GPA. Results indicated that EI is not a strong predictor of academic achievement regardless of the type of instrument used to measure it. However, a construct validity examination revealed that the MSCEIT correlated highly with indices of cognitive ability but minimally with personality dimensions. In contrast, the EQ-i failed to correlate with indices of cognitive ability but correlated substantially with numerous personality dimensions.     

Validity evidence for the situational judgment test paradigm in emotional intelligence measurement

To date, various measurement approaches have been proposed to assess emotional intelligence (EI). Recently, two new EI tests have been developed based on the situational judgment test (SJT) paradigm: the Situational Test of Emotional Understanding (STEU) and the Situational Test of Emotion Management (STEM). Initial attempts have been made to examine the construct‐related validity of these new tests; we extend these findings by placing the tests in a broad nomological network. To this end, 850 undergraduate students completed a personality inventory, a cognitive ability test, a self‐report EI test, a performance‐based EI measure, the STEU, and the STEM. The SJT‐based EI tests were not strongly correlated with personality and fluid cognitive ability. Regarding their relation with existing EI measures, the tests did not capture the same construct as self‐report EI measures, but corresponded rather to performance‐based EI measures. Overall, these results lend support for the SJT paradigm for measuring EI as an ability.     

Agreeableness,conscientiousness, and psychoticism: Distinctive influences of three personality dimensions in adolescence

Researchers have suggested that the psychoticism (P) personality dimension of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire may be largely redundant with the agreeableness (A) and conscientiousness (C) constructs of the five‐factor model. Little research has examined the distinctiveness of these constructs. We utilized a multi‐wave, multi‐method design to examine the ability of C, A, and P to uniquely predict a number of important outcomes amongst high school students. A total of 778 students (391 males, 387 females; mean age 15.41 years.) completed personality measures in Grade 10. Self‐reported self‐esteem, social support, health‐related behaviours, religious values as well as teachers' assessments of students, were collected 1 and 2 years later. A, C, and P were distinctive in their ability to predict these outcomes, after controlling for gender and socio‐economic status as well as Grade 10 extraversion, openness, and neuroticism. The individual P items explained unique variance over and above that explained by A and C. It was concluded that P is not merely the opposite of A and C. Implications for interventions are raised.     

Estimating one's own personality and intelligence scores

One hundred and eighty‐seven university students completed the full NEO‐PI‐R assessing the five super‐traits and 30 primary traits, and the Wonderlic Personnel Test of general intelligence. Two months later (before receiving feedback on their psychometric scores), they estimated their own scores on these variables. Results at the super‐factor level indicated that participants could significantly predict/estimate their own Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Conscientiousness scores. The correlation between estimated and psychometrically measured IQ was r=.30, showing that participants could, to some extent, accurately estimate their intelligence. In addition, there were a number of significant correlations between estimated intelligence and psychometrically assessed personality (particularly Neuroticism, Agreeableness and Extraversion). Disagreeable people tended to award themselves higher self‐estimated intelligence scores. Similarly, stable people tended to award themselves higher estimates of intelligence (even when other variables were controlled). Regressing both estimated and psychometric IQ scores onto estimated and psychometric personality scores indicated that the strongest significant effect was the relationship between trait scores and self‐estimated intelligence.