Cross-sectional,longitudinal and composite longitudinal data on the Career Maturity Inventory Attitude Scale

Longitudinal data collection designs are frequently used in the study of developmental variables but typically yield patterns of results that are different from those obtained using cross-sectional designs. Recent research has focused on ways to clarify and reconcile the methodological distinctions between these two designs by utilizing alternative designs that incorporate features of both. This investigation compared the results obtained by the two traditional designs on the Career Maturity Inventory-Attitude Scale with the effects of an alternative design: constructing a composite longitudinal gradient. The two traditional methodologies yielded different results from each other for males, but not for females. However, the alternative design failed to eliminate the obtained differences for males, and introduced differences for females, casting doubt on the efficacy of the “solution.” The implications of these results for developmental research and career maturity were discussed.     

密集追踪数据分析：模型及其应用

在心理学、教育学和临床医学等领域, 越来越多的研究者开始关注个体内部的行为、心理、临床效果等随时间而产生的动态变化, 重视针对个体的差异化建模。密集追踪是一种在短时间内对个体进行多个时间节点密集追踪测量的方法, 更适合用于研究个体内部心理过程等的动态变化及其作用机制。近年来, 密集追踪成为心理学研究的一大热点, 但许多密集追踪的研究分析仍停留在较为传统的方法。方法学领域已涌现出较多用于密集追踪数据分析的模型方法, 较为主流的模型包括以动态结构方程模型(Dynamic Structural Equation Model, DSEM)为代表的自上而下的建模方法, 以及以组迭代多模型估计(Group Iterative Multiple Model Estimation, GIMME)为代表的自下而上的建模方法。二者均可以方便地对密集追踪数据中的自回归及交叉滞后效应进行建模。     

Individual differences in the development of sensation seeking and impulsivity during adolescence: further evidence for a dual systems model

Consistent with social neuroscience perspectives on adolescent development, previous cross-sectional research has found diverging mean age-related trends for sensation seeking and impulsivity during adolescence. The present study uses longitudinal data on 7,640 youth from the National Longitudinal Study of Youth Children and Young Adults, a nationally representative sample assessed biennially from 1994 to 2006. Latent growth curve models were used to investigate mean age-related changes in self-reports of impulsivity and sensation seeking from ages 12 to 24 years, as well individual differences in these changes. Three novel findings are reported. First, impulsivity and sensation seeking showed diverging patterns of longitudinal change at the population level. Second, there was substantial person-to-person variation in the magnitudes of developmental change in both impulsivity and sensation seeking, with some teenagers showing rapid changes as they matured and others maintaining relatively constant levels with age. Finally, the correlation between age-related changes in impulsivity and sensation seeking was modest and not significant. Together, these results constitute the first support for the dual systems model of adolescent development to derive from longitudinal behavioral data.     

遗传、环境和青少年的吸烟饮酒行为：芬兰双生子研究的回溯与前瞻

本文介绍的两个“芬兰双生子（Finn Twin）”研究是对10个出生组的青少年双生子及其家庭的长期跟踪研究。本文概述了这两个项目对遗传与环境的关联和互动对吸烟饮酒行为影响的研究。这些研究的结果提示个体差异对吸烟饮酒行为的长期变动的影响受到兄弟姐妹互动、同伴互动以及父母教养方式的调节。环境对吸烟饮酒的影响主要表现在学校、居住社区与家庭环境的差异上。环境与遗传影响的程度和持久度有城乡差异。遗传的影响受居住社区的制约。多阶段模型的分析揭示了遗传与环境的互动对这些行为的演变（从试吸试饮到发展到滥用）的动态的影响,遗传似乎对吸烟饮酒的共同轨迹更有影响。这些结果对今后本项目对这约1万对芬兰成年双生子的分子遗传学研究提供了有益的线索     

Developmental changes in coping: situational and methodological influences

Previous studies on the development of coping have shown rather inconsistent findings regarding the developmental trajectories for different coping dimensions. The aim of this study is to search for possible influences that might explain these inconsistencies. The analysis focuses on methodological influences (longitudinal vs. cross-sectional assessments) and situational influences. Two samples of children were traced longitudinally with yearly assessments from grade 2 to 5 (sample 1, N =432) and from grade 4 to 7 (sample 2, N =366). A third sample (N =849) was added with cross-sectional assessments from grade 2 to 7. The assessed coping dimensions were related to (a) problem solving, (b) seeking social support, (c) palliative coping, (d) externalizing emotional coping, and (e) avoidant coping. The use of the coping strategies had to be assessed for six stress-evoking situations. The results show only small differences between the longitudinal and the cross-sectional coping assessments. There are, however, clear situational influences on the choice of the coping strategies and also on the resulting developmental trajectories.     

Perceived Control,Family Environment,and the Etiology of Child Anxiety—Revisited

In 1998, Chorpita, Brown, and Barlow published a now seminal study in Behavior Therapy examining the development of anxiety in children and adolescents using Barlow’s 1988 model of the development of anxiety in adults. Mindful of developmental considerations, parental control and children’s perceptions of control were considered key factors in this revised model. Since that study, mixed support has accumulated for the role of control, both parental control and children’s perceptions of that control, in the development of childhood anxiety. As a result, the measurement of these constructs has been critically examined and refined in recent years and encouraging findings have been obtained. Unfortunately, however, the Chorpita and colleagues study as well as the studies that have followed have used cross-sectional designs and the directionality of effects has not been clearly established. Longitudinal studies are required. Here, we present a qualitative review of these developments and provide directions for future research.     

Stress and subjective life expectancy: Cross-sectional and longitudinal associations in early adolescence

Using data from a longitudinal study, the present study employed a latent class mover-stayer analytical strategy to examine both the cross-sectional and longitudinal (+33 months) relationship between membership of stress classes, and subjective life expectancy. Participants were from 21 High schools in Scotland and Northern Ireland. Data were collected in the first year of High school (mean age = 12.5 years), and at +33 months (fourth year, or school year 11). Sample 1 consisted of 1171 adolescents (40.82% females, 2.56% unreported) in Northern Ireland. Sample 2 consisted of 1059 adolescents (52.79% females, 1.32% unreported) in Scotland. Adolescents with the lowest levels of stress projected the highest subjective life expectancy scores. Longitudinal analyses were jumbled and not in keeping with cross-sectional results. More research may be needed on the trajectory of subjective life expectancy over time before it can be depended upon as a reliable outcome variable in adolescent development.     

Stability and predictability of quality of women's marital relationships and demoralization

This longitudinal study was motivated by cross-sectional, clinical, and survey research on marital relationships and individual well-being. Perceptions of husbands' behavior toward themselves and self-reports of demoralization were collected from 51 low-income women during their children's kindergarten year and 3 years later. Longitudinal correlations of specific components and aggregated scores of perceptions of husbands' behavior and of demoralization revealed significant stability. Both initial and later marital relationship scores had higher correlations with later than with initial demoralization scores. Longitudinal correlations and multiple regression analysis supported the hypothesis that initial marital relationship would predict later demoralization. Quality of perceived marital relationship apparently has different immediate and long-term effects on components of individual adjustment. Integrated longitudinal studies of relationships and personality and their intercorrelations are needed to understand stability and change in adult personality and well-being.     

The relationship between moral decision making and patterns of consolidation and transition in moral judgment development

Following models that describe intraindividual correlates of stage transitions (S. S. Snyder & D. H. Feldman, 1984), this study assessed the relation between a measure of consolidation and transition in moral judgment development and the utility of moral concepts in sociomoral decision making. The study extends previous research in suggesting that individuals use moral concepts differently as they cycle through periods of consolidation and transition. With multiple cross-sectional and longitudinal samples, findings indicate that participants' reliance on a Kohlbergian moral framework as measured by the Defining Issues Test is highest during periods of consolidation and lowest during transitions. As participants move into periods of consolidation, the utility of moral stage information increases. Thus, this study indicates that the consolidation and transition model can be used to help identify individuals who are more or less likely to use Kohlberg's moral stages in their moral decision making.     

Developmental changes in coping: Situational and methodological influences

Abstract

Previous studies on the development of coping have shown rather inconsistent findings regarding the developmental trajectories for different coping dimensions. The aim of this study is to search for possible influences that might explain these inconsistencies. The analysis focuses on methodological influences (longitudinal vs. cross-sectional assessments) and situational influences. Two samples of children were traced longitudinally with yearly assessments from grade 2 to 5 (sample 1, N =432) and from grade 4 to 7 (sample 2, N =366). A third sample (N =849) was added with cross-sectional assessments from grade 2 to 7. The assessed coping dimensions were related to (a) problem solving, (b) seeking social support, (c) palliative coping, (d) externalizing emotional coping, and (e) avoidant coping. The use of the coping strategies had to be assessed for six stress-evoking situations. The results show only small differences between the longitudinal and the cross-sectional coping assessments. There are, however, clear situational influences on the choice of the coping strategies and also on the resulting developmental trajectories.     

The development and effectiveness of memory strategies in kindergarten and elementary school: Findings from the Würzburg and Göttingen longitudinal memory studies

This article reports findings of the Würzburg and Göttingen Longitudinal Memory Studies, which focused on children's verbal memory development. The studies started with 102 (German) kindergarten children in Würzburg and 86 second-graders in Göttingen who were tested on various memory measures, including sort-recall, memory capacity, metamemory, and verbal IQ. Assessments were repeated nine times, with adjacent measurement points separated by 6-month time intervals. The main goals of the studies concerned the assessment of utilization deficiencies during the course of strategy development, the analysis of factors influencing the effectiveness of strategy use, and the occurrence of multiple strategy use. Findings confirmed the outcome of previous longitudinal studies in that semantic organization strategies were not always accompanied by superior recall, but utilization deficiency problems were comparably rare. Strategy effectiveness was shown as being affected mainly by memory capacity and by children's tendency to engage in multiple strategy use. However, children did not start to apply multiple strategies effectively until the end of Grade 2.     

国内追踪数据分析方法研究与模型发展

追踪研究因其可以得到比横断研究更有说服力的变量关系论证, 在心理学等科学中具有重要地位。梳理国内以心理学为主的相关领域中追踪数据分析方法研究的发表现状、主要解决的研究问题和模型发展。追踪研究可以进行均值差异比较、分析多变量相互影响、描述总体发展趋势及差异和探究心理动态变化过程。近20年的研究热点和发展思路也集中在上述研究问题当中, 特别是总体发展趋势及差异、多变量相互影响、总体发展趋势与多变量相互影响的融合、追踪研究设计、缺失数据等议题上。最后, 比较国内外研究的差异, 并结合交叉学科对国内追踪研究未来发展做出展望。     

Bringing life history theory into relationship science

In this article, I review three longitudinal studies that have investigated how exposure to more versus less predictable environments shunt individuals down different developmental pathways. After describing key principles of life history theory and how stress can shape social development over time, I discuss an interrelated set of findings from the Minnesota Longitudinal Study of Risk and Adaptation. Collectively, these studies reveal the pathways through which exposure to more unpredictable, chaotic early‐life environments prospectively forecast engaging in riskier behaviors and shorter‐term, more opportunistic, and less investing orientations to mating and parenting in one or both genders. I conclude by discussing the broader goals underlying this program of research.     

Taking stock of the longitudinal study of romantic couple relationships: The last 20 years

Longitudinal dyadic research provides significant benefits for our understanding of romantic couple relationships. In this systematic review, we begin by providing a broad overview of topical trends and approaches in longitudinal couple relationships research from 2002 through 2021. Then, we narrow our review to dyadic relationship quality articles, highlighting key themes as well as noting important gaps in the research. Using an intersectional perspective that acknowledges multiple ways that disadvantage, power, and oppression may be seen in both research and in couples' lived experience, we note prominent paradigms used in examining couple relationships, what types of questions have been most valued, and what groups and approaches are underrepresented in the literature. Most longitudinal couple relationships research is quantitative, relies on self-report approaches from American couples in the early-to-middle years of their relationships, concentrates more on negative aspects of relationships than positives, and takes a communication-satisfaction paradigm in studying couples. We see a clear need to increase the use of methodologies beyond self-report measures, conduct more studies with within-group minority, older adult, culturally-diverse, and context-specific samples to explore the diversity of relationships, and fully consider both strengths and positive processes in relationships as well as the challenges couples experience.     

Gaining perspectives: A scoping review of research assessing depressive symptoms in athletes

The aim of this review was to 1) describe methodological characteristics of the research that has assessed depressive symptoms in athletes, and 2) to map the variables that have been tested in relation to these symptoms. A review framework proposed by Arksey and O’Malley (2005) was utilized, and of 6983 records screened, 157 studies were included. Most studies were cross-sectional, with samples including current male and female athletes from multiple sports and levels. Non-athlete comparison groups frequently consisted of student samples. Twenty-eight different depression scales were utilized, of which CES-D, BDI, BDI-II, and the PHQ-9 were most common. The most commonly tested variables in relation to depressive symptoms were identified as proximal (micro- and meso-level) sport-specific (e.g. type of sport) (36.4%) and generic (e.g. sex) (31.5%) factors. Within-individual vulnerabilities (e.g. neurocognitive performance) accounted for 17.2%, while comorbid disorders accounted for 9.3%, and macro-level variables (e.g. ethnicity) for 5% of all observations. Longitudinal studies within specific sports are needed to understand the relative influence of sport-specific and generic factors on depressive symptoms in athletes. Few studies explored sociocultural or macro-level factors, and research concerning within-individual vulnerability is fragmented and needs to be further explored to inform individual-level support and prevention initiatives.     

Attention bias to threat in mothers with emotional disorders predicts increased offspring anxiety symptoms: a joint cross-sectional and longitudinal analysis

There is convincing evidence of the transmission of anxiety and depression from parents to children; however, mechanisms by which this vulnerability is passed on are unclear. Cognitive models and a small body of cross-sectional research suggest that parental attention biases (ABs) may be one mechanism involved in transmission. Longitudinal associations of maternal and offspring ABs with offspring symptoms have been scarcely studied. Forty-three mothers–child dyads were included. All children (7–12 years old) were diagnosis-free while 24 mothers had a lifetime emotional disorder (anxiety or depression) (high risk, HR) and 19 mothers had no psychiatric diagnoses (low risk, LR). This study examined cross-sectional and longitudinal associations of maternal and child AB and child anxiety symptomology at initial and 12-month assessments. ABs were assessed using a visual-probe task with emotional faces. There was a significant cross-sectional but not longitudinal association of increased child anxiety symptoms with increased maternal threat AB for HR but not LR dyads. At the cross-sectional level, increases in HR but not LR offspring anxiety symptomology were associated with maternal threat AB. Larger longitudinal studies are required that examine the interplay between parent–child variables and include multiple time-points of assessment and measures of AB.     

Dichotic listening ear asymmetry: Patterns of longitudinal development

Dichotic listening research with children has continued to be prevalent although numerous authors have described both theoretical and methodological limitations with traditional dichotic listening free-recall paradigms. The present research adds to this growing skepticism by reanalyzing two major longitudinal studies of children's ear asymmetries. These two studies, based in different countries (United States, Holland), utilized highly similar paradigms (free-recall digits), subjects (males), and age levels (kindergarten and second and fifth grade). The questions of ear advantage development, patterns of ear advantages, and the relationship between dichotic listening performance and reading skills are addressed from the multiple statistical methodologies represented in the literature. From these analyses, support for all of the major hypotheses regarding the developmental patterns of dichotic listening performances could be obtained from the same data samples. The use of traditional free-recall dichotic listening paradigms are not recommended for use with children. The implications for future research are discussed.     

Lead us not into temptation: Differential associations of religious identification with self-regulatory traits and abilities

While there has been considerable research on the link between religiosity and self-regulation, the directionality of both constructs remains equivocal. Moreover, little is known regarding the association between religiosity and performance-based measures of self-regulatory abilities, given that past studies have predominantly examined self-regulatory traits via self-reports. Drawing from a 9-year longitudinal dataset (Time 1: n = 4836; Time 2: n = 3467), cross-sectional findings indicated that religious identification was positively and negatively correlated with self-regulatory traits and abilities, respectively. Longitudinal findings revealed that self-regulatory abilities predicted negative changes in religious identification, and this effect strengthened from middle to late adulthood. No longitudinal relations between religious identification and self-regulatory traits were found. Our findings highlight the differential associations of religious identification with self-regulatory traits and abilities, and how these associations are modulated by advancing adulthood.     

Identity, the Identity Statuses, and Identity Status Development: A Contemporary Statement

The Utrecht Study of Adolescent Development (Meeus et al., this issue) provides new data pertinent to issues of identity formation addressed in earlier reviews of the literature, specifically, (a) the direction and timing of identity status development, (b) the relative stability of the identity statuses, and (c) gender differences in identity formation. Despite numerous differences from earlier studies in the samples studied, the instruments used, and the methodologies employed, the findings of the Utrecht study are generally quite consistent with theoretical expectations and previous research outcomes. Because of the size and scope of the Utrecht study, data on possible age differences in the frequency of specific patterns of intraindividual identity status change could be analyzed. This aspect of identity formation had not been previously investigated. Equivocal results were obtained. Possible explanations for the partial failure to confirm this aspect of developmental theory are discussed.