Effects of consistent aerobic exercise on the psychological functioning of women

Effects of consistent aerobic exercise on depression, anxiety, and health locus of control for a group of nonclinical inactive women were investigated. Type A and Type H (hard-driving) behavioral styles were evaluated to determine whether these traits were related to exercise improvement. 26 women were randomly assigned to either an exercise group (n = 10) or exercise with cognitive strategy instructions (n = 16). All subjects increased distance run in 12-min. run test from pre- to posttest. Women improved in depression and trait anxiety. Depression was significantly correlated with body mass index at end of program. Posttest state-anxiety was significantly correlated with 6-wk. follow-up of exercise frequency. No significant difference in pre- and posttest health locus of control was found. Type H scores were significantly correlated with number of exercise sessions attended. Consistent aerobic exercise had a positive effect on psychological functioning, and some characteristics may affect exercise improvement.     

Effects of aerobic exercise on anxiety sensitivity

Anxiety sensitivity is a known precursor to panic attacks and panic disorder, and involves the misinterpretation of anxiety-related sensations. Aerobic exercise has been shown to reduce generalized anxiety, and may also reduce anxiety sensitivity through exposure to feared physiological sensations. Accordingly, 54 participants with elevated anxiety sensitivity scores completed six 20-min treadmill exercise sessions at either a high-intensity aerobic ( n = 29 ) or low-intensity ( n = 25 ) level. Self-ratings of anxiety sensitivity, fear of physiological sensations associated with anxiety, and generalized anxiety were obtained at pre-treatment, post-treatment, and one-week follow-up. Results indicated that both high- and low-intensity exercise reduced anxiety sensitivity. However, high-intensity exercise caused more rapid reductions in a global measure of anxiety sensitivity and produced more treatment responders than low-intensity exercise. Only high-intensity exercise reduced fear of anxiety-related bodily sensations. The implications of these findings are discussed.     

Effectiveness of a mental training program for novice scuba divers

Abstract

The purpose of the study was to assess the effects of a mental training program on state anxiety, respiration rate and performance of novice scuba divers. Forty-four participants enrolled in novice open water diving courses served as participants. An intervention group (n = 15), in addition to scuba training, received an audiotaped mental training program designed to reduce anxiety and improve diving performance. A placebo-control group (n = 15) followed the same procedures except that their audiotape contained general information about scuba diving. A control group (n = 14) received only scuba training. The intervention group reported lower pre-dive scores for cognitive anxiety, higher pre-dive scores for self-confidence, performed better on bail-out and mask removal tasks, and showed lower respiration rate than either control group. Respiration rate and somatic anxiety scores significantly predicted bail-out performance. Respiration rate also predicted mask removal performance. These results suggest that novice divers may benefit from mental training as part of their pre-dive instruction.     

Anxiety and heart rate under psychological stress: The effects of exercise-training

Abstract The effects of a 12-week exercise-training program on cognitive, somatic, and behavioral anxiety and on heart rate responses to evaluative stress were scrutinized in 89 subjects randomly assigned to an experimental (exercise) or a control group. The training program consisted of exercises that were aimed to the improvement of the general physical fitness (i.e., strength, flexibility, and endurance). Following the 12-week training period, exercising subjects showed improved motor skill capacity as well as higher VO(2) max. In an anxiety inciting test situation, that consisted of the video-taped delivery of a 5-min speech, a mental arithmetic and a fine motor task, exercising subjects showed more favourable responses than control subjects in three ways: (a) they exhibited lower behavioral anxiety during the anticipation phase of the three stressors, (b) they reported lower cognitive and somatic anxiety during the anxiety provoking situation, and (c) their heart rate recovered faster, in contrast to both their baseline heart rate and the control subjects' heart rate, from the stress episode. These results demonstrate that a fitness-oriented exercise program has anxiolytic properties. They also provide a primary evidence that overt behavioral anxiety, as opposed to the usually measured self-reported anxiety, may be affected by exercise.     

Effects of minimal exercise and cognitive behavior modification on adherence, emotion change, self-image, and physical change in obese women

The present investigation tested a 12-wk. treatment protocol which employed low intensity cardiovascular and resistance exercise as well as cognitive-behavior modification on 13 obese, previously sedentary women. Separate analyses were conducted on program maintenance, emotional change, and physiological change. Although self motivation was lower in the treatment group than in the control group (n=35), measures of exercise maintenance were significantly higher. Analyses within the treatment group only indicated significant improvements in measures of State Anxiety, Depression, Anger, Fatigue, Tension, and Vigor, also Health Evaluation, Body Area Satisfaction, and heightened Overweight Preoccupation, over the 12 weeks. Their feelings after individual bouts of exercise indicated significantly increased Positive Engagement, Revitalization, and Tranquility, and reduced Physical Exhaustion. Maximum volume of oxygen uptake (VO2max) significantly increased (2nd to 10th percentile), but not resting heart rate. No significant correlation was found between cardiorespiratory change and change in scores on depression and anxiety. No significant association was found between physiological change and change in body image. Preliminary evaluation of the minimal exercise treatment was given. The need to replicate findings with larger and different samples was emphasized.     

Relationship between ratings of perceived exertion and exercise-induced decrease in state anxiety

24 females (aged 18 to 28 yr.) completed two 24-min., randomly ordered bicycle ergometer exercise bouts at workloads maintaining steady state at 30% and 60% heart-rate reserve. Ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) were recorded at 3-min. intervals from Minutes 9 to 24 of exercise. State anxiety was measured prior to, immediately following and 50 min, after cessation of exercise. Regression analysis indicated no relationship between RPE and the pre- to postexercise changes in state anxiety.     

Effects of steady-state exercise on perceived pain: comparison of sedentary students and cyclists

In this study, the effect of fitness level on perceived pain before and after a steady state exercise was investigated. Ten trained cyclists (M age=25.2 yr., SD=4.9) and 10 sedentary men (Mage=24.5 yr., SD=2.2) performed a maximal graded test on a cycle ergometer. At least 48 hr. later the participants of both groups performed a 30-min. steady-state cycling test at 75% of VO2 max. Before the steady-state exercise and 5- and 30-min. postexercise, a pressure pain stimulation test was applied on the finger of each participant. Perceived pain was measured with Borg's CR10 scale at the end of each pain stimulation. The results indicated no significant changes in perceived pain between the pre-exercise and 5- and 30-min. postexercise values (effect sizes=.07 and .19, respectively). Moreover, no significant difference in perceived pain was found between the groups for pre-exercise (ES=.02) and 5- and 30-min. postexercise (ES=.16 and .21, respectively) values. These results do not confirm the analgesic effects usually observed after steady state exercise. Therefore, it is not possible to compare the analgesic effect of this exercise mode between participants characterized by different fitness levels.     

The anxiolytic effect of aqua aerobics in elderly women

This study examined the anxiolytic (anxiety reducing) effects of exercise for elderly women engaging in a single bout of aqua aerobics. Volunteers (N=29) completed questionnaires immediately before and after participating in an aqua aerobics class. The average age of participants was 66.4 yr. A brief form of Spielberger's State Anxiety Inventory and a questionnaire on demographic items were administered prior to engagement in exercise, and the brief form of the State Anxiety Inventory was administered again immediately after the exercise session. There was a significant difference on a t test between participants' ratings of anxiety before exercise (M = 16.8) compared to after exercise (M= 13.9); participants' ratings of state anxiety were somewhat lower after exercising. Weaknesses of the present study and suggestions for research are presented.     

Performance in a substitution task and state anxiety following yoga in army recruits

140 men (M age = 30.3 yr., SD = 5.7) from the Indian army in north India participated in the study. They were naive to yoga and were assigned to yoga and breath awareness groups randomly, with 70 in each group. 20 healthy males of comparable age (M age = 33.7 yr., SD = 7.0) formed a comparison group. Their performance in a digit-letter substitution task and a state anxiety subscale was assessed immediately before and after two 45-min. sessions. The two groups of soldiers practiced either yoga or breath awareness. The comparison group listened to meditation music. Digit-letter substitution scores increased in both groups of army personnel and in the comparison group. State anxiety decreased after yoga and listening to meditation music, but not after breath awareness. This suggests that even in army personnel naive to yoga, a yoga-based intervention or listening to meditation music could reduce anxiety while increasing performance on an attention task.     

Why do they do it? Differences in high-intensity exercise-affect between those with higher and lower intensity preference and tolerance

Evidence suggests high-intensity exercise results in a more negative affective response when compared to moderate- or low-intensity exercise. However, a large number of individuals continue participating in high-intensity exercise, in spite of these supposed declines in affective state.PurposeDetermine whether trait differences influence variability in exercise-affect for those with higher versus lower exercise intensity preference and/or tolerance, and determine the mediating relationship between traits, exercise behavior, and affective states.MethodsUndergraduates (N = 245, 20.3 ± 1.7 yrs, BMI = 23.7 ± 3.8, 60.8% female, 82% regular exercisers) completed the Preference for and Tolerance of the Intensity of Exercise Questionnaire. They then completed a 15-min high-intensity body-weight circuit (HIC), a walk, and a reading condition, where valence (via Feeling Scale), perceived physiological activation (via Felt Arousal Scale), and ratings of perceived exertion were taken prior to, every 3-min during, and 20-min post (P20) condition, while activity enjoyment was assessed immediately post.ResultsMultivariate ANOVAs revealed significant differences (p_s < 0.05) in valence between those with high versus low intensity preferences during HIC at minutes 3 (d = 0.615), 6 (d = 0.772), 9 (d = 0.659), 12 (d = 0.625), 15 (d = 0.632), and at P20 (d = 0.554), and for enjoyment following HIC (d = 0.545), but not for walking or reading conditions.ConclusionsThese findings suggest the intensity-preference trait influences how an individual feels during high-intensity exercise, but has less influence on affect during moderate/lower intensity activities. These differences may be predictive of whether an individual will continue high-intensity exercise programming.     

Sex differences in psychological effects of exercise

The purpose of this study was to investigate sex differences in psychological effects of exercise on university students. University students (73 female and 65 male) were randomly assigned to experimental and control groups by equating sex in each group. The experimental group participated in step dance sessions of 50 min per day, 3 days per week for 10 weeks with 60-80% of their heart rate reserves. Throughout the 10-week period, the lecture control group was told not to participate in any organized or structured exercise and participated in a lecture that was about the physiological and psychological benefits of exercise. Self-concept, belief in external control, and trait anxiety of the groups were measured before and after the exercise program. A significant improvement in the psychological variables after the exercise program and more improvement for female exercise participants were expected. Analysis revealed no significant initial differences in self-concept, belief in external control, and trait anxiety between the two groups or between males and females, other than family and moral/ethical self. Repeated measures analysis of variance revealed that exercise led to less belief in external control and significant improvement in physical self and identity dimensions of self-concept for the experimental group compared to the control group. However, there was no significant difference in trait anxiety between the two groups after exercise (p>.05). Analysis also revealed that changes in belief in external control, trait anxiety, and self-concept did not differ with regard to sex. Males and females showed no difference in their improvement on trait anxiety, belief in external control, and most dimensions of self-concept during the 10 weeks. Only changes in personal and physical self throughout 10-week period were different for males and females. Exerciser males improved their personal self and physical self scores more than female exercisers and male and female nonexercisers throughout the 10-week period (p<.05).     

Perceptual and physiological responses during exercise in cool and cold water

This investigation examined the interaction of exposure to cold water stress with both perceived exertion and thermal sensation during exercise. Eight male volunteers performed arm, leg, and combined arm and leg exercise for 45 min. in water at 20 and 26 degrees C. Exercise was performed at a low (n = 7) and a high (n = 8) intensity relative to the ergometer specific peak oxygen uptake (VO2 peak). In general, percent VO2 peak did not differ between types of exercise in either 20 or 26 degrees C water. During low intensity exercise when power output was matched across water temperatures (Tw), percent VO2 peak was greater in 20 degrees C water (52%) compared to 26 degrees C water (42%). Ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) did not differ between Tw. During high intensity exercise when percent VO2 peak was matched across Tw, RPE was lower during exercise in 20 degrees C compared to 26 degrees C. Multiple correlation analyses comparing both final RPE and thermal sensation (TS) with physiological and thermal measures were performed across type of exercise and Tw. RPE was moderately correlated with heart rate (r = 0.68) and ventilation (r = 0.61), whereas very slight relationships were established with TS (r = 0.16), skin and rectal temperatures (r = 0.10 and r = 0.20). TS was moderately correlated with skin and rectal temperatures (r = 0.64 and r = 0.73), whereas low correlations existed between TS and both heart rate (r = 0.32) and ventilation (r = -0.12). These data suggest that the change in oxygen uptake associated with exercise in cold water does not add to the over-all perception of exertion. This perception appears to be related to cardiopulmonary variables rather than thermal measures, whereas thermal sensation is related to thermal measures and not cardiopulmonary variables.     

Acute effects of aerobic exercise on mood

Thirty-two female students participated in a single-session experiment during which they carried out two 8-min trials of high-intensity exercise and two 8-min trials of low-intensity exercise. One high- and one low-exercise trial were accompanied by music; the other two trials were accompanied by metronome. Mood was assessed with a modification of the Profile of Mood States before and immediately after each trial. The purpose of the experiment was disguised to reduce the influence of subject expectations on mood responses. Participants were divided into fit and unfit groups based on heart rate responses during high-exercise trials. Overall, high-intensity exercise led to increases in tension/anxiety and fatigue, whereas positive mood changes (vigor and exhilaration) were seen following low-intensity exercise only. No group differences in mood responses were observed. Explanations of these results are considered in light of other literature concerning the acute effects of exercise on mood.     

Interrelationships between anxiety,lifestyle self-reports and fitness in a sample of Hong Kong University students

Although anxiety in university students has been well documented, the influence of lifestyle and fitness status in relation to anxiety has not been investigated from a cultural perspective previously. To make recommendations regarding the avoidance or management of anxiety in this anxiety-prone cohort that are rationally based, this preliminary investigation examined the interrelationship between anxiety, lifestyle self-reports and aerobic fitness in Hong Kong Chinese University students. The State Trait Anxiety Inventory (Form Y-2) and a lifestyle questionnaire were completed by 213 students. Female students were more anxious than male students. Subjects with high anxiety reported more deleterious lifestyle behaviours including higher salt consumption and lower levels of exercise; in addition to more frequent symptoms of anxiety such as headaches and daytime somnolence. The extremes of this sample were stratified into a low anxiety group (n = 17) and a high anxiety group (n = 14) to compare their fitness status. Although both groups had below normal aerobic capacity, the higher systolic blood pressure observed for the high anxiety group is consistent with signs of anxiety, or greater deconditioning in this group or both. The results of this study have highlighted anxiety as a concern in Hong Kong University students and identified some lifestyle and fitness correlates. Understanding lifestyle and pathophysiological correlates of anxiety in Hong Kong University students that may have a cultural basis, is a crucial step toward averting or managing anxiety when these students are studying either in Hong Kong or abroad.     

Goal-setting protocol in adherence to exercise by Italian adults

A goal-setting protocol, based on research in goal setting and performance and personal construct theory, was tested for its effect on adherence to a new exercise program. The Goal-setting group (n = 50) had significantly less dropout (30%) than the control group (n = 50) (74%). The Goal-setting group also had significantly better attendance (p<.0001). Suggestions for increasing confidence in findings through further research and practical implications of using the protocol to improve exercise maintenance across settings were discussed.     

Acute exercise effects on worry,state anxiety,and feelings of energy and fatigue among young women with probable Generalized Anxiety Disorder: A pilot study

BackgroundLittle is known about the acute effects of exercise among individuals with clinical or subclinical Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD).PurposeThus, this study examined worry, state anxiety, and feelings of energy and fatigue responses to acute aerobic exercise and quiet rest, and explored potential moderators of response among young adult women with worry scores indicative of GAD.MethodsSeventeen young women with Penn State Worry Questionnaire scores ≥45 (60 ± 8) completed 30-min treadmill running at 65%–85% heart rate reserve (%HRR) and 30-min seated quiet rest in counterbalanced order. Outcomes included worry, state anxiety, and feelings of energy and fatigue. Two condition X two time repeated measures ANOVA examined differences across condition and time. Hedges’ d effect sizes (95%CI) were calculated to quantify and compare the magnitude of change. Independent-samples t-tests explored potential moderators of outcome response.ResultsTotal exercise time was 35.8 ± 3.4min with a mean 30.3 ± 0.16 in-zone minutes (65%-85%HRR); participants exercised at ∼72.9 ± 0.03 %HRR (range 66%–79%). Compared with quiet rest, acute exercise significantly improved worry engagement, state anxiety, and feelings of energy and fatigue (all p ≤ 0.031). Moderate-to-large (d = 0.44 to 1.69) reductions in state anxiety and feelings of fatigue and improvements in feelings of energy were found. Exercise-induced reductions in worry engagement were significantly larger among non-high trait anxious participants. Compared to normal sleepers, quiet rest significantly increased feelings of fatigue among poor sleepers.ConclusionFindings provide support for the positive effects of acute aerobic exercise on worry, state anxiety, and feelings of energy and fatigue among young women with worry indicative of GAD.     

Age and physiological, perceptual, and affective responses during walking at a self-selected pace

The aim of this study was to examine physiological, perceptual, and affective responses during self-paced walking for three age groups. 66 adult women were assigned into three groups by age: 20-25 yr. (n=22), 30-35 yr. (n=22), and 40-45 yr. (n=22). Each participant completed a maximal exercise test and a 20-min. bout of walking at a self-selected pace. The preferred walking speed was similar for all age groups, whereas physiological responses relative to maximal and ventilatory threshold values were greater in the 40-45 yr. group than the other two groups. Nevertheless, perceptual and affective responses were similar for all age groups. These findings suggest that physiological responses, but not perceptual and affective responses, of sedentary women are associated with age during walking at a self-selected pace.     

Social support as a buffer of anxiety: An experimental analogue

The anxiety-buffering role of social support was investigated using an experimental analogue. Undergraduate females (N = 75) were assigned to one of three conditions: tested alone, tested with a stranger, or tested with a friend. Subjects first completed the Perceived Social Support Scale, State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, and a palmar sweat measure. They were then told that after a 5-min waiting period they would be asked to answer a number of personal questions while being videotaped. Subjects accompanied by a friend showed a smaller increase in state anxiety than the other two groups. There was no group difference on the palmar sweat measure. No significant relationship between perceived social support and changes in state anxiety was found.     

Similarities between retrospective and actual anxiety states

The purpose of the study was to examine the fit and calibration of the items in Spielberger, Gorsuch, and Lushene's (1970) State-Trait Anxiety Inventory during measurement of actual and retrospective anxiety. Subjects in the actual anxiety situation (n = 113) and in the retrospective anxiety situation (n = 55) were administered the inventory, and 20 scale items were analyzed individually by the probabilistic Rasch Model (Wright & Masters, 1982). Comparisons between the items' values in both situations revealed that 17 of the 20 items were rated similarly. In the retrospective anxiety state, 9 items (misfits) failed to discriminate between high- and low-anxious subjects, but only 6 failed to do so in the actual anxiety state. Despite the similarities, we recommend that the scales be modified to yield a more reliable measure of anxiety and to discriminate more accurately among subjects with varying levels of anxiety.     

Why do people perform thrilling activities? A study based on reversal theory

The present study was aimed at testing the assumption based on reversal theory, according to which people perform frightening activities to induce high anxiety, which in turn can give rise to pleasant excitement, provided that a metamotivational reversal occurs. The Tension and Effort Stress Inventory was administered to 46 individuals just before and just after a frightening ride on a cable (Fantasticable). A 30-subject control group was given the same inventory in a safe context, with a 2-min. rest between the two periods of completion. Ratings of Tension Stress, Anxiety, and overall Unpleasant Emotions were significantly decreased after the ride for the Fantasticable group. Conversely, significant increases in Preferred Arousal, Excitement, Transactional Emotions, and overall Pleasant Emotions were found after the ride. Also, pre-activity anxiety correlated with postactivity excitement (r = .79) for the Fantasticable group only. This supports the reversal theory contention about how one's involvement in arousal-seeking leisure may improve one's emotional state. No time effect was noted in the ratings for the control group, suggesting an association of participation in a frightening activity and emotional enhancement.