How to support learning from multiple hypertext sources

In the present study, we investigated three factors that were assumed to have a significant influence on the success of learning from multiple hypertexts, and on the construction of a documents model in particular. These factors were task (argumentative vs. narrative), available text material (with vs. without primary sources), and presentation format (active vs. static). The study was conducted with the help of the combination of three tools (DEWEX, Chemnitz LogAnalyzer, and SummTool) developed for Web-based experimenting. The results show that the task is the most important factor for successful learning from multiple hypertexts. Depending on the task, the participants were either able or unable to apply adequate strategies, such as considering the source information. It was also observed that argumentative tasks were supported by an active hypertext presentation format, whereas performance on narrative tasks increased with a passive presentation format. No effect was shown for the type of texts available.     

超文本阅读绩效研究述评——认知的视角

网络不同于传统媒介的最大特点是以灵活的超文本形式呈现信息,超文本将关联的信息以网络状形式加以组织,读者可以通过链接从一个节点跳转到其他任何一个节点。本文回顾了超文本阅读的研究历程,指出目前这一领域研究存在的困境并试图寻找原因,在此基础上提出了今后研究的建议。     

超文本节点大小对网页信息搜索效率的影响

本研究考察了超文本节点大小对网页信息搜索效率的影响效应.采用单变量被试间设计,自变量为超文本节点大小,分为130字左右、260字左右和520字左右三个水平,因变量为被试找到10个相关问题的正确答案所需的时间以及搜索过程中打开的节点个数和重复节点数.结果表明,虽然发现正确答案所需的时间随节点增大而延长,但这种影响没有达到显著的水平(p＞0.05);节点大小对被试打开的节点个数和重复节点数均有显著影响(p＜0.01).结论认为,在超文本网页设计中应充分考虑节点大小对信息搜索效率的影响效应.     

The use of hypertext and sensory-level supports for visual learning of aircraft names and shapes

Hypertexts have many novel and unexplored features for representing, linking, and exploring knowledge to make it more useful for learning. We contrasted traditional textbook presentation of information against a hypertext that implemented database retrieval of text and manipulation of colored, bitmapped displays. Hypertext enabled us to explore the role of sensory-level supports, such as apparent motion and colored overlays, as aids for visual cognition and concept formation. One visible difference between traditional text and hypertext was in the use of a rapid browsing strategy by the hypertext learners, compared with a methodical, extended side-by-side comparison by the book learners. The research also discovered that students better learned local neighborhoods of concepts, as opposed to widely dispersed concepts, in the hypertext environment. We selected visual aircraft recognition (VACR) as a topical area for the research because it is a very important problem in the Army, because traditional VACR training emphasizes both text and images, and because we had available to us a fine manual (Army Field Manual FM 44–30) full of black-and-white pictures and text that was artfully arranged on the page, as well as access to hundreds of color slides of airplanes. Our research found superior learning with the hypertext field manual, and we examined higher order learning strategies, such as depth-first versus breadth-first paths through the hierarchy of knowledge, and sensory-level supports for learning within these environments.     

Creating a hypertext markup language document for an information server

This paper briefly overviews the World-Wide Web. It then provides a short tutorial on the use of the hypertext markup language to publish information on the web. Hypertext markup language is a special page-layout language that was developed to help make creating and retrieving information on the web consistent and efficient. Hyperlinks within hypertext markup language make the language especially powerful because they enable the browser to transparently retrieve images, movies, or audio files from virtually any computer on earth simply by clicking on an item displayed on the monitor.     

The Chemnitz LogAnalyzer: A tool for analyzing data from hypertext navigation research

Computer-based studies usually produce log files as raw data. These data cannot be analyzed adequately with conventional statistical software. The Chemnitz LogAnalyzer provides tools for quick and comfortable visualization and analyses of hypertext navigation behavior by individual users and for aggregated data. In addition, it supports analogous analyses of questionnaire data and reanalysis with respect to several predefined orders of nodes of the same hypertext. As an illustration of how to use the Chemnitz LogAnalyzer, we give an account of one study on learning with hypertext. Participants either searched for specific details or read a hypertext document to familiarize themselves with its content. The tool helped identify navigation strategies affected by these two processing goals and provided comparisons, for example, of processing times and visited sites. Altogether, the Chemnitz LogAnalyzer fills the gap between log files as raw data of Web-based studies and conventional statistical software.     

Human use regulatory affairs advisor (HURAA): Learning about research ethics with intelligent learning modules

The Human Use Regulatory Affairs Advisor (HURAA) is a Web-based facility that provides help and training on the ethical use of human subjects in research, based on documents and regulations in United States federal agencies. HURAA has a number of standard features of conventional Web facilities and computer-based training, such as hypertext, multimedia, help modules, glossaries, archives, links to other sites, and page-turning didactic instruction. HURAA also has these intelligent features: (1) an animated conversational agent that serves as a navigational guide for the Web facility, (2) lessons with case-based and explanation-based reasoning, (3) document retrieval through natural language queries, and (4) a context-sensitive Frequently Asked Questions segment, calledPoint & Query. This article describes the functional learning components of HURAA, specifies its computational architecture, and summarizes empirical tests of the facility on learners.     

Human use regulatory affairs advisor (HURAA): learning about research ethics with intelligent learning modules.

The Human Use Regulatory Affairs Advisor (HURAA) is a Web-based facility that provides help and training on the ethical use of human subjects in research, based on documents and regulations in United States federal agencies. HURAA has a number of standard features of conventional Web facilities and computer-based training, such as hypertext, multimedia, help modules, glossaries, archives, links to other sites, and page-turning didactic instruction. HURAA also has these intelligent features: (1) an animated conversational agent that serves as a navigational guide for the Web facility, (2) lessons with case-based and explanation-based reasoning, (3) document retrieval through natural language queries, and (4) a context-sensitive Frequently Asked Questions segment, called Point & Query. This article describes the functional learning components of HURAA, specifies its computational architecture, and summarizes empirical tests of the facility on learners.     

Operate your own World-Wide Web server

Although many researchers wishing to use the World-Wide Web for academic purposes rely on centralized Web services, they should be aware that it is neither expensive nor difficult to operate their own server. Doing so provides research-related benefits such as complete control over their host name and documents provided, the guaranteed ability to execute common gateway interface and server-side include programs, immediate access to their collected data, and the ability to better control who participates in their experiments. This paper surveys Web-server software features likely to be of interest to psychologists and conceptually summarizes their operation and use. The basic steps required to set up a Web server on popular microcomputers are reviewed, and security issues concerning Web-server operation are discussed. An accompanying resource Web page can assist users in setting up their own servers.     

结构、任务类型和导航对超文本信息搜索的影响

通过两个实验考察了结构、任务类型和导航对超文本信息搜索绩效的影响。实验一采用2（层次结构,混合结构）×2（特定任务,关系任务）的被试内设计,探讨了超文本结构和任务类型对信息搜索的影响;实验二在实验一的基础上,采用2（层次结构,混合结构）×2（有导航图,无导航图）的被试内设计,考察超文本结构和导航对关系任务信息搜索的影响。结果表明：（1）超文本结构和任务类型对信息搜索绩效有显著的交互影响,就关系任务而言,混合结构超文本优于层次结构超文本,但就特定任务而言,两者无显著差异;（2）导航对信息搜索行为有指导作用,尤其对层次结构超文本有利;（3）两种主观指标的结果与客观指标存在一定程度的一致性。     

Perceptual organization without perception. The subliminal learning of global contour

A critical step in visual perceptual processing is integrating local visual elements into contours so that shapes can be derived from them. It is often assumed that contour integration may reflect hardwired coding of low-level visual features. In this study, we present novel evidence indicating that integration of local elements into contours can be learned subliminally, despite being irrelevant to the training task and despite the local properties of the display varying randomly during training. Learning occurred only when contours were consistently paired with task-relevant targets--echoing the findings of previous studies on subliminal learning of low-level features. Our data indicate that task-irrelevant, exposure-based learning extends beyond local low-level visual features and may play a critical role at multiple levels of visual perceptual organization.     

Effect on Restaurant Tipping of Male and Female Servers Drawing a Happy, Smiling Face on the Backs of Customers' Checks

Research has shown that a server's smiling can increase restaurant tips and that a server's writing "thank you" on the backs of checks can also increase tips. In the current study, these two approaches were combined. An experiment was conducted in which a male or female server drew a happy, smiling face on the backs of checks before delivering them to customers, or simply delivered checks with nothing drawn on the back. It was predicted that this tactic would increase tips for the female server because of an increased perception of friendliness, but would not increase tips for the male server because such behavior would be perceived as gender-inappropriate. Results were consistent with predictions.     

文本组织和结构化水平对中文信息搜索的影响

以高结构化中文信息为实验材料,探讨文本组织和结构化水平对信息搜索的影响。以文本组织形式为自变量,以材料的结构化水平为控制变量,以搜索时间和迷路指数为因变量。结果发现：线性文本的搜索时间显著长于低层次的超文本,但迷路程度显著低于所有类型的超文本;3种超文本无显著差异;对层次型超文本来说,4层次的搜索时问显著短于11层次。综合以前研究的结果提出,信息结构化水平虽然对层次深度的效应具有调制作用,但并不是影响超文本信息搜索的最主要因素。     

Modeling feature perception in brief displays with evidence for positive interdependencies

Recent studies have begun to test certain fundamental assumptions underlying popular models of feature perception. This research is continued here. It was discovered that every basic assumption that was open to test in the present study was disconfirmed. However, several new characteristics of line and curve feature perception were discovered: (1) Feature perception sensitivity was inversely related to the number of features present in a stimulus pattern, and the decision criteria for reporting a feature decreased with the number of features contained in a pattern; (2) the decrements in sensitivity reported in (1) were greater for features lying inside a pattern than for those on the exterior; and (3) feature perception sensitivity actually improved if another feature was known to be correctly perceived during the same trial. Likewise, feature sensitivity decreased if another feature was missed on any trial. At the present time, a system that first extracts global and then local (more detailed) featural information provides a basis that qualitatively accounts for our findings and is also compatible with several other studies in the literature.     

The Drexel Disk: Hypertext-based instructional software as a tool for the exploration of a constrained knowledge space

In this paper, an example of multi-functional, transportable instructional software is described. The software provides the user with a constrained knowledge space and the necessary tool to explore it. Relying heavily on graphics and hypertext linkages, the software is easy to use; it is distributed throughout the university as part of a solution to the problems of training and supporting microcomputer users.     

Academic contributions to psychological counselling. 2. Discourse analysis and the formulation of case-reports

The composition of psychological case-reports can be studied in terms of discourse analysis. This examines the rhetorical features of reports and contributes to the work of critical evaluation and constructive revision. The coherence of case-reports is dealt with mainly in terms of substantive logic, which consists in identifying and interrelating the component statements of one or more arguments used to explain a case. Practical suggestions are made about analysing arguments with the help of a word processor. Local cohesion in normal linear test also affects comprehension; diagrams and hypertext are mentioned. Factors affecting the production of a case-report include the reporter's expertise and the difficulty of the task. The reporter's understanding of, and ability to deal with, a case are likely to be modified in the process of reflecting on and revising a report. Preparing a case-report is an exercise in problem-solving. Such exercises can be used in training-a tutorial outline is provided together with a framework for the layout of case-reports at a scientific and professional level.     

Whisker: A client—server high-performance multimedia research control system

We describe an original client-server approach to behavioral research control and the Whisker system, a specific implementation of this design. The server process controls several types of hardware, including digital input/output devices, multiple graphical monitors and touchscreens, keyboards, mice, and sound cards. It provides a way to access this hardware for client programs, communicating with them via a simple text-based network protocol based on the standard Internet protocol. Clients to implement behavioral tasks may be written in any network-capable programming language. Applications to date have been in experimental psychology and behavioral and cognitive neuroscience, using rodents, humans, nonhuman primates, dogs, pigs, and birds. This system is flexible and reliable, although there are potential disadvantages in terms of complexity. Its design, features, and performance are described.     

TelEMA: a low-cost and user-friendly telephone assessment platform

Ecological momentary assessment (EMA), or the repeated assessment of individuals’ behaviors and experiences over time, is a methodologically advantageous approach to the study of psychological constructs. Recently, advances in computer technology have allowed for EMA research to be conducted in a more convenient, automated, and secure manner by administering surveys on participants’ telephones and storing the results directly to a central server. The present article introduces TelEMA, an easy-to-use, low-cost telephone assessment platform for clinical and research applications. A single server running TelEMA can be shared among many experimenters, studies, and participants simultaneously. TelEMA routes telephone calls and text messages through a third-party service, so experimenters may conduct studies with no up-front cost or technical expertise. TelEMA provides a secure Web interface for experimenters or clinicians to design studies, enroll participants, monitor compliance, and collate response data from anywhere. Participants complete surveys using their own telephones. Surveys may contain keypress or voice recording questions, and the timing and content of each survey may be randomized and customized. A pilot study was conducted in which individuals used the TelEMA system to complete four randomly timed surveys per day for one week; the surveys assessed state affect and social anxiety. Results indicated that participants found TelEMA easy to use and secure, and compliance rates were on par with other EMA methods using mobile devices. Overall, TelEMA is a practical and robust system that enables fast and inexpensive deployment of EMAs.     

Superiority of global features in classification and matching

Summary Global superiority refers to the phenomenon that stimuli can be discriminated, classified, and matched faster using a global feature than a local feature. Global superiority has been shown by several authors with forms (global feature) composed of smaller forms (local features) as stimuli. In contrast, the local features used in the present study had about the same spatial extent as the global feature and each local feature was structurally relevant to the global feature. Nevertheless, global superiority was consistently observed in several classification and matching tasks. This result, together with the results of other researchers using different stimulus materials shows that global superiority is a pervasive phenomenon. Under brief exposure durations within the threshold range, local features could, however, be better discriminated than global features. This finding invalidates the perceptual explanation of global superiority that global features are faster extracted and, in this way, become available earlier than local features. Considering the magnitude of the observed differences between classification times and threshold durations of global and local features, it is argued that under normal viewing conditions global features can be better selected and utilized for the given task than local features, and that this advantage by far outweighs the faster feature extraction of local features.This research was supported by Grant Wa 419/3 from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft