Neighborhood Poverty, Social Capital, and the Cognitive Development of African American Preschoolers

In this investigation, we examine the impact of the ecological context of the residential neighborhood on the cognitive development of children by considering social processes not only at the family-level but also at the neighborhood-level. In a socioeconomically diverse sample of 200 African American children living in 39 neighborhoods in Baltimore, we found that neighborhood poverty was associated with poorer problem-solving skills over and above the influence of family economic resources and level of positive parent involvement. Sampson has theorized that neighborhood poverty affects child well-being by altering levels of neighborhood social capital as well as family social capital. Although we found that indicators of neighborhood and family social capital were associated with cognitive skills, these factors did not explain the association between neighborhood poverty and problem-solving ability. Implications for future research in the area of neighborhoods and child development are discussed.     

Socioeconomic Status,Emotional/Behavioral Difficulties,and Social Competence among Preschool Children in Japan

Socioeconomic status (SES) is an important contextual factor influencing children’s development. However, there have been limited attempts to examine either the impact of relative poverty on child development or the relationships between specific SES indicators and mental health domains. This study elucidates these relationships in Japanese preschool children who experience high levels of relative poverty. Participants were 3218 Japanese children aged 5–6 years. Their mothers completed self-report questionnaires on SES indicators and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire to measure emotional/behavioral problems. Children’s teachers evaluated children’s social competence using the Social Skills Questionnaire for Preschoolers. Each SES indicator had an inverse relationship with all emotional/behavioral problem domains in the univariate analysis. In the multivariate analysis, lower family income consistently predicted higher scores on all emotional/behavioral problem domains, whereas lower maternal and paternal education levels independently predicted higher scores in specific domains. Each SES indicator had positive relationships with all social competence dimensions in the univariate analysis. Higher family income consistently predicted higher social competence in the multivariate analysis. However, paternal education level only predicted self-control, and maternal education did not predict social competence. Family income and parental education levels were significant independent predictors of emotional/behavioral problems and social competence. Thus, this study suggests that SES does affect child outcomes in a country where there is a high level of relative poverty and underscores the importance of assessing income and education status separately in order to identify their potentially unique associations with development among preschool children.     

Socioeconomic background,nonverbal IQ and school absence affects the development of vocabulary and reading comprehension in children living in severe poverty

Few studies have examined how socioeconomic status (SES) affects two essential parts of human development, namely vocabulary and reading comprehension, in children facing severe poverty. The Roma population is the largest minority group in Europe, the majority of whom live in severe poverty. This study compared the development of 322 Roma children with the development of 178 non‐Roma children, between the ages of 7 and 10 years, living in Romania. The Roma children had poorer initial vocabulary and reading comprehension skills as well as slower growth rates for both compared to the non‐Roma children. Importantly, SES had a direct influence on growth in both reading comprehension and vocabulary. The effect of SES was partly mediated by school absence and nonverbal IQ. This is a powerful finding since it suggests that poverty may have detrimental effects not only on reading but also on the development of verbal abilities.     

Intelligence of Children from Economically Disadvantaged Families: Role of Parental Education

The impact of parental education status on the intelligence of children from economically disadvantaged families was examined. One-hundred school going children aged 4 to 8 years from low income families were divided into 3 groups based on the level of their parental education. The main outcome measure was the intelligence of the child. Significant differences (p < .000) in the IQs of the 3 groups of children were found. Children with high parental education had significantly higher IQs as compared to children with moderate and low parental education level. Stepwise regression analysis revealed that 33.7% of the variance in the IQ of the child was explained by the education of the mother and income of the household. It is concluded that economic disadvantage may not necessarily constrain the cognitive development of children living in poverty, provided parents have some threshold level of education.     

Does Neighborhood Social Capital Buffer the Effects of Maternal Depression on Adolescent Behavior Problems?

Neighborhood characteristics have been shown to impact child well-being. However, it remains unclear how these factors combine with family characteristics to influence child development. The current study helps develop that understanding by investigating how neighborhoods directly impact child and adolescent behavior problems as well as moderate the influence of family characteristics on behavior. Using multilevel linear models, we examined the relationship among neighborhood conditions (poverty and social capital) and maternal depression on child and adolescent behavior problems. The sample included 741 children, age 5–11, and 564 adolescents, age 12–17. Outcomes were internalizing (e.g. anxious/depressed) and externalizing (e.g. aggressive/hyperactive) behavior problems. Neighborhood poverty and maternal depression were both positively associated with behavior problems for children and adolescents. However, while neighborhood social capital was not directly associated with behavior problems, the interaction of social capital and maternal depression was significantly related to behavior problems for adolescents. This interaction showed that living in neighborhoods with higher levels of social capital attenuated the relationship between maternal depression and adolescent behavior problems and confirmed the expectation that raising healthy well-adjusted children depends not only on the family, but also the context in which the family lives.     

家庭收入与儿童早期的社会能力：中介效应与调节效应

以325名幼儿为被试,收集母亲报告的家庭人均月收入、儿童一般社会能力和家庭环境,及教师报告的师生关系,考察了家庭收入在儿童早期社会能力中的作用,及家庭社会文化环境在其中的中介作用和家庭情感环境在其中的调节作用。结果发现：(1) 高收入家庭儿童的一般社会能力及师生关系质量显著高于低收入家庭的儿童;(2) 在家庭收入对儿童一般社会能力的预测中,家庭社会文化环境中的智力-文化取向与社交-娱乐取向均发挥了中介作用,家庭情感环境中的控制性发挥了调节作用,且家庭智力-文化取向的中介作用受到了家庭控制性的调节;(3) 在家庭收入对师生关系质量的预测中,家庭情感环境中的控制性和矛盾性发挥了调节作用。     

Neighborhood Types and Externalizing Behavior in Urban School-Age Children: Tests of Direct, Mediated, and Moderated Effects

We evaluated the association of neighborhood types and externalizing behavior problems in 99 predominately African-American urban children (M = 10.7 years), and the extent to which qualities of the family environment mediated or moderated these associations. Three distinct neighborhood types were identified using cluster analysis of census and crime data. Results showed that children living in very poor neighborhoods with moderate crime levels had more behavior problems than children living in relatively low crime, low poverty areas. Family stress mediated the association between neighborhood type and behavior problems. Family cohesion moderated the association of neighborhood type and adjustment: children living in the most impoverished neighborhoods with high levels of family cohesion demonstrated fewer behavior problems relative to their peers in low-cohesive households in the same area, and similar levels of behavior problems relative to children in highly cohesive homes in low crime, low poverty areas.     

Longitudinal Patterns of Self-Regulation among Ethnic Minority Children Facing Poverty

Early poverty is associated with a cumulative load of family and community risk factors that can impact the development of self-regulatory abilities and result in socio-emotional and achievement gaps which begin early and persist across the lifespan. Ethnic minorities are disproportionately represented among children living in poverty. The longitudinal trajectories of self-regulation are important to understand in this population, in order to best inform prevention efforts. This study examines patterns of self-regulation over time among young, ethnic minority children living in low income, urban households. A stratified, random sample of 555 children, ages 2 to 4 years, (46% Black, 46% Hispanic; 47% female) were followed over three waves (including 1 and 5 year follow-ups). Internalizing and externalizing behaviors at approximately age nine were predicted by children’s early self-regulation. Latent class analyses revealed low, medium, and high levels of self-regulatory abilities at wave 1 (mean age: 2.99, SD?=?.81) and low and high levels, 1 year later (mean age: 4.39 (SD?=?.94). A gender effect was found whereby girls were more likely than boys to be in the high self-regulation class relative to the low at both waves. Using Latent Transition Analysis, distal outcomes were examined approximately 5 years after the initial assessment (mean age: 8.83, SD?=?.93). Children who sustained a higher level of self-regulation over time had the lowest internalizing and externalizing behaviors. Transition to low self-regulation at wave 2, regardless of initial self-regulation status, was related to greater severity of internalizing symptoms. Implications for prevention and future research are discussed.     

压力性生活事件对工读生毒品使用影响：有中介的调节效应

考察家庭功能对压力性生活事件与工读生毒品使用之间关系的调节效应以及领悟社会支持对此调节效应是否具有中介效应。采用压力性生活事件量表、家庭功能评定问卷、领悟社会支持问卷、毒品使用问卷对514名工读生进行研究。结果表明：（1）家庭功能对压力性生活事件与工读生毒品使用之间关系具有调节效应;（2）这种调节效应以领悟社会支持为中介变量。压力性生活事件对工读生毒品使用的影响是有中介的调节效应。     

Family Policy Initiatives in Latin America: The Case of Colombia and Ecuador

Family policy initiatives in Colombia and Ecuador have targeted primarily families living in poverty. This paper discusses some of the major policy initiatives oriented to improve the living conditions of economically disadvantaged families in both countries. We argue that, even though governments recognize the importance of family policies, existing policies and programs for families living in poverty do not directly focus on family issues. They represent more implicit than explicit family policies. We analyze some of the issues that may hinder the development, implementation, and evaluation of family policies in Colombia and Ecuador. Such issues stem from political and economic instability, legislation, changing family demographics, as well as coordination among agencies that develop, implement, and evaluate policies. We discuss challenges related to family policies in both countries and recommendations to improve existing policy initiatives.     

Risk of future suicide attempts in adolescent psychiatric inpatients at 18-month follow-up

This study investigated potential predictors of suicidal behavior in adolescents during an 18-month follow-up period. Subjects included 60 adolescent psychiatric inpatients initially assessed in a private psychiatric hospital. Follow-up suicidality was most strongly predicted by high intake levels of hopelessness, and an increase in or persistent problems with depression during follow-up. Some family functioning variables measured at intake were predictive of suicidal behavior at the univariate level but did not add to the predictive ability of individual functioning variables. A mediational model was proposed in which the impact of family functioning on adolescent suicidality is mediated by its impact on individual functioning.     

亲子关系对贫困儿童问题行为的影响

以247名贫困儿童为被试进行问卷调查,构建家庭社会经济地位和亲子关系对贫困儿童问题行为的多重中介模型,得到抑郁、自我控制的中介作用。结果显示,亲子关系和社会经济地位分别通过中介路径影响贫困儿童问题行为,与亲子关系有关的中介路径为91.25%,与抑郁有关的中介效应为57.60%,与自我控制有关的中介效应为57.15%. 结论：良好的亲子关系或成为贫困儿童的保护因子;应关注贫困儿童心理健康,增加有效心理疏导机制;注重培养贫困儿童的自我控制能力。     

The relations between cluster indexes of risk and promotion and the problem behaviors of 6- and 7-year-old children from economically disadvantaged families

This study examined the relations between alternative representations of poverty cofactors and promotion processes and teacher reports of the problem behaviors of 6- and 7-year-old children from economically disadvantaged families (N = 159). The results showed that single-index representations of risk and promotion variables predicted child aggressive behaviors but not child anxious/depressed behaviors. An additive model of individual risk indicators performed similarly. Smaller indexes representing clusters of parent adjustment variables and family instability variables, however, differentially predicted aggressive and anxious/depressed behaviors, respectively. The results suggest the importance of promotion processes and of representing environmental adversity at varying levels of specificity for children from economically disadvantaged families.     

Predicting individual differences in low‐income children's executive control from early to middle childhood

The present longitudinal study tested the roles of early childhood executive control (EC) as well as exposure to poverty‐related adversity at family and school levels as key predictors of low‐income children's EC in elementary school (n = 391). Findings suggest that children's EC difficulties in preschool and lower family income from early to middle childhood are robust predictors of later EC difficulties as rated by teachers in 2nd and 3rd grades. Findings also suggest enrollment in unsafe elementary schools is significantly predictive of higher levels of teacher‐rated EC difficulty, but only for those children who showed initially elevated levels of EC difficulty in early childhood. Implications for scientific models of cognitive development and poverty‐related adversity are discussed.     

Family processes as pathways from income to young children's development

A variety of family processes have been hypothesized to mediate associations between income and young children's development. Maternal emotional distress, parental authoritative and authoritarian behavior (videotaped mother-child interactions), and provision of cognitively stimulating activities (Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment [HOME] scales) were examined as possible mediators in a sample of 493 White and African American low-birth-weight premature infants who were followed from birth through age 5. Cognitive ability was assessed by standardized test, and child behavior problems by maternal report, when the children were 3 and 5 years of age. As expected, family income was associated with child outcomes. The provision of stimulating experiences in the home mediated the relation between family income and both children's outcomes; maternal emotional distress and parenting practices mediated the relation between income and children's behavior problems.     

贫困对个体执行功能的影响

已有研究发现,贫困会对个体的执行功能产生消极的影响,这种影响贯穿于个体婴儿期、童年期以及成年期。贫困会影响与执行功能相关的前额叶的结构（如较小的灰质体积）。贫困个体与非贫困个体对额叶区域资源的调用方式不同,贫困个体需要使用额外的补偿资源来监测和抑制对干扰物的反应。贫困会通过压力、认知剥夺以及父母养育等因素直接或间接的影响个体的执行功能。今后该领域的研究应关注贫困影响执行功能的调节变量（如自我肯定、自我调节）,建立贫困影响执行功能的综合模型（如考虑贫困经历时间等）,立足执行功能的可塑性,通过认知干预提高贫困个体的执行功能。     

Social support as a moderator of the relationship between poverty and coping behavior

This study examined the relationship between poverty and coping and defense behaviors and the way social support moderates this relationship. One hundred fifty Indian adults responded to scales of income, perceived economic status, coping, defense and social support. In addition, physical quality of living was rated on the basis of observation and a short interview. Results showed that income and physical quality of living were positively associated with perceived economic status. Income, physical quality of living, and perceived economic status were negatively related to coping and defense behaviors. Finally, social support did not moderate the impact of poverty on coping and defense behaviors.     

Short-term and long-term effects of early parental employment on children of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth

This study examined the effects of early parental employment on children in the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth. Minimal effects on children's later functioning were found. Early maternal employment status and the timing and continuity of early maternal employment were not consistently related to children's development. Working more hours was associated with slightly lower cognitive development through age 9 and slightly lower academic achievement scores before age 7 but had no significant relation to children's behavior problems, compliance, or self-esteem. Early parental employment appeared to be somewhat more beneficial for single mothers and lower income families. There was some support for the hypothesis that early parental employment positively affects children's development by increasing family income.     

The Role of Stress Exposure and Family Functioning in Internalizing Outcomes of Urban Families

Although research suggests that stress exposure and family functioning are associated with internalizing problems in adolescents and caregivers, surprisingly few studies have investigated the mechanisms that underlie this association. To determine whether family functioning buffers the development of internalizing problems in stress-exposed families, we assessed the relation between stress exposure, family functioning, and internalizing symptoms among a large sample of inner-city male youth and their caregivers living in poverty across five waves of data collection. We hypothesized that stress exposure and family functioning would predict development of subsequent youth and caregiver internalizing problems and that family functioning would moderate this relation, with higher functioning families demonstrating greater resiliency to stress exposure. We used a longitudinal, prospective design to evaluate whether family functioning (assessed at waves one through four) activated or buffered the effects of stress exposure (assessed at wave one) on subsequent internalizing symptoms (assessed at waves four and five). Stress from Developmental Transitions and family functioning were significant predictors of depressive symptoms and anxiety in youth; however, family functioning did not moderate the relation. Family functioning mediated the relation between stress from Daily Hassles and internalizing outcomes suggesting that poor parenting practices, low structure, and low emotional cohesion activate depression and anxiety in youth exposed to chronic and frequent everyday stressors. Surprisingly, only family functioning predicted depressive symptoms in caregivers. Results validate the use of a comprehensive, multi-informant assessment of stress when investigating internalizing outcomes in youth and support using family-based interventions in the treatment and prevention of internalizing.     

Iowa Gambling Task performance and executive function predict low-income urban preadolescents’ risky behaviors

This study examines preadolescents’ reports of risk-taking as predicted by two different, but related inhibitory control systems involving sensitivity to reward and loss on the one hand, and higher order processing in the context of cognitive conflict, known as executive functioning (EF), on the other. Importantly, this study examines these processes with a sample of inner-city, low-income preadolescents and as such examines the ways in which these processes may be related to risky behaviors as a function of children’s levels of both concurrent and chronic exposure to household poverty. As part of a larger longitudinal study, 382 children (ages 9–11) provided a self-report of risky behaviors and participated in the Iowa Gambling Task, assessing bias for infrequent loss (preference for infrequent, high magnitude versus frequent, low magnitude loss) and the Hearts and Flowers task assessing executive functioning. Results demonstrated that a higher bias for infrequent loss was associated with higher risky behaviors for children who demonstrated lower EF. Furthermore, bias for infrequent loss was most strongly associated with higher risk-taking for children facing highest levels of poverty. Implications for early identification and prevention of risk-taking in inner-city preadolescents are discussed.