Motive Arousal Without Pictures? An Experimental Validation of a Hybrid Implicit Motive Test

Pictures are widely used as stimuli in implicit motive tests. Hybrid forms of such tests present pictures and declarative statements underneath pictures. Some authors have argued that explicitly declaring agreement with motive-related statements presented underneath pictures might shift the validity of such tests from capturing less implicit motives to more explicit motives. If that is the case, pictures as elicitors of implicit motives might become less relevant. Adopting the views on validity presented by Borsboom, Mellenbergh, and van Heerden (2004 Borsboom, D., Mellenbergh, G. J., &; van Heerden, J. (2004). The concept of validity. Psychological Review, 111, 1061–1071. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.111.4.1061[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) and Bornstein (2011 Bornstein, R. F. (2011). Toward a process-focused model of test score validity: Improving psychological assessment in science and practice. Psychological Assessment, 23, 532–544. doi:10.1037/a0022402[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), as well as item generation theory, we investigated whether the availability of pictures in hybrid motive tests causally affects test scores. To this end, we administered the Multi-Motive Grid (MMG; Sokolowski, Schmalt, Langens, &; Puca, 2000 Sokolowski, K., Schmalt, H.-D., Langens, T. A., &; Puca, R. M. (2000). Assessing achievement, affiliation, and power motives all at once: The Multi-Motive-Grid (MMG). Journal of Personality Assessment, 74, 126–145. doi:10.1207/S15327752JPA740109[Taylor &; Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), as an example of a hybrid motive test, either with or without pictures to 108 participants. Results revealed that the availability of pictures had no effect on 3 out of 6 test scores. Furthermore, eliminating pictures had only inconsistent effects on correlations with a test of explicit motives. We conclude that pictures might not unanimously elicit motives in implicit motive tests that use declarative statements as response options.     

Development and Validation of an Expanded Version of the Three-Factor Levenson Self-Report Psychopathy Scale

The Levenson Self-Report Psychopathy Scale (LSRP; Levenson, Kiehl, &; Fitzpatrick, 1995 Levenson, M. R., Kiehl, K. A., &; Fitzpatrick, C. M. (1995). Assessing psychopathic attributes in a noninstitutionalized population. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68(1), 151–158. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.68.1.151[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) is a brief self-report questionnaire frequently used in psychopathy research. Although the scale has many desirable properties such as brevity and being available in the public domain, there are also several psychometric concerns associated with it, including low internal consistency, problematic construct validity, and incomplete conceptual coverage of several components of psychopathy. In 2 studies, we provide evidence that additional items can augment the LSRP to address the aforementioned concerns. In the first study, using a large sample of students and members of the general Australian community (n = 729), we found that an expanded 36-item, 3-factor version of the LSRP was associated with improvements in internal consistency and construct coverage with little degradation in model fit. In the second study, using another Australian community sample (n = 300), we replicated the results of Study 1 and demonstrated improvements in construct validity for the expanded 36-item, 3-factor scale compared to the 19-item, 3-factor scale. Our results indicate that, although slightly longer, the expanded version of the 3-factor LSRP ameliorates many of the concerns associated with its original counterpart.     

Development of the Short Version of the Individuation Test for Emerging Adults (ITEA–S) and Its Measurement Invariance Across Slovene and U.S. Emerging Adults

In this study we developed a short version of the Individuation Test for Emerging Adults (ITEA–S) and tested its measurement invariance across Slovene and U.S. samples of emerging adults. The item reduction process resulted in retaining 21 out of 36 items. The content analysis of the retained and discarded items revealed that the ITEA–S adequately measures the 5 individuation domains (support seeking, connectedness, intrusiveness, self-reliance, and fear of disappointing the parent). In our samples, the ITEA–S demonstrated evidence for construct validity and its 5 scales showed adequate internal consistency. The scale scores were also meaningfully associated with the relevant demographic variables in both countries, as well as the three scales of the Psychological Separation Inventory (Hoffman, 1984 Hoffman, J. A. (1984). Psychological separation of late adolescents from their parents. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 31, 170–178.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; the Slovene sample), and the scales of the Differentiation of Self–Revised questionnaire (Skowron &; Schmitt, 2003 Skowron, E. A., &; Schmitt, T. A. (2003). Assessing interpersonal fusion: Reliability and validity of a new DSI Fusion with Others subscale. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 29, 209–222.[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; the U.S. sample). The results of multiple group confirmatory factor analyses supported the hypothesis of full metric and partial scalar invariance for both ITEA–S forms (in relation to mother and father) across the 2 country groups.     

A Statistical Consideration Regarding the Threshold of the Psychopathy Checklist–Revised

The Psychopathy Checklist–Revised (PCL–R; Hare, 2003 Hare, R. D. (2003). Hare Psychopathy Checklist–Revised technical manual (2nd ed.). Toronto, ON, Canada: Multi-Health Systems. [Google Scholar]) is one of the most commonly used measures of psychopathy. Scores range from 0 to 40, and legal and mental health professionals sometimes rely on a cut score or threshold to classify individuals as psychopaths. This practice, among other things, assumes that all items contribute equally to the overall raw score. Results from an item response theory analysis (Bolt, Hare, Vitale, &; Newman, 2004 Bolt, D. M., Hare, R. D., Vitale, J. E., &; Newman, J. P. (2004). A multigroup item response theory analysis of the Psychopathy Checklist–Revised. Psychological Assessment, 16, 155–168. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.16.2.155[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), however, indicate that PCL–R items differ in the amount of information they can provide about psychopathy. We examined the consequences of these item differences for using a cut score, detailing the consequences for a previously applied cut score of 30 as an example. Results indicated that there were more than 8.5 million different response combinations that equaled 30 and more than 14.2 million that equaled 30 or more. This raw score, like others, corresponded to a broad range of PCL–R-defined psychopathy, indicating that applying cut scores on this measure results in imprecise quantifications of psychopathy. We show that by using the item parameters along with an individual's particular scores on the PCL–R items, it is possible to arrive at a more precise understanding of an individual's level of psychopathy on this instrument.     

The Structure of Multidimensional Perfectionism: Support for a Bifactor Model With a Dominant General Factor

Evidence suggests perfectionism is a multidimensional construct composed of 2 higher order factors: perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns. However, the substantial overlap between perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns is problematic, as are the unanswered questions regarding the structure of perfectionism following removal of common variance. This research addressed this through bifactor modeling. Three student samples (N = 742) completed Hewitt and Flett's (1991 Hewitt, P. L., &; Flett, G. L. (1991). Perfectionism in the self and social contexts: Conceptualization, assessment, and association with psychopathology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 456.[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, Frost, Marten, Lahart, and Rosenblate's (1990 Frost, R. O., Marten, P., Lahart, C., &; Rosenblate, R. (1990). The dimensions of perfectionism. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 14, 449–468.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, and Slaney, Rice, Mobley, Trippi, and Ashby's (2001 Slaney, R. B., Rice, K. G., Mobley, M., Trippi, J., &; Ashby, J. S. (2001). The revised almost perfect scale. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 34, 130–145.[Taylor &; Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) Almost Perfect Scale–Revised. Greater support was consistently found for the bifactor model, relative to the 2-factor model. Results suggest the bifactor model best represents the structure of perfectionism and provide preliminary support for the use of a general factor score. Researchers are cautioned that removal of general variance may render the reliability of specific factors (i.e., perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns) suspect.     

Addressing Item-Level Missing Data: A Comparison of Proration and Full Information Maximum Likelihood Estimation

Often when participants have missing scores on one or more of the items comprising a scale, researchers compute prorated scale scores by averaging the available items. Methodologists have cautioned that proration may make strict assumptions about the mean and covariance structures of the items comprising the scale (Schafer &; Graham, 2002 Schafer, J.L., &; Graham, J.W. (2002). Missing data: Our view of the state of the art. Psychological Methods, 7, 147–177.[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Graham, 2009 Graham, J.W. (2009). Missing data analysis: Making it work in the real world. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 549–576.[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Enders, 2010 Enders, C.K. (2010). Applied missing data analysis. New York, NY: Guilford Press. [Google Scholar]). We investigated proration empirically and found that it resulted in bias even under a missing completely at random (MCAR) mechanism. To encourage researchers to forgo proration, we describe a full information maximum likelihood (FIML) approach to item-level missing data handling that mitigates the loss in power due to missing scale scores and utilizes the available item-level data without altering the substantive analysis. Specifically, we propose treating the scale score as missing whenever one or more of the items are missing and incorporating items as auxiliary variables. Our simulations suggest that item-level missing data handling drastically increases power relative to scale-level missing data handling. These results have important practical implications, especially when recruiting more participants is prohibitively difficult or expensive. Finally, we illustrate the proposed method with data from an online chronic pain management program.     

An Examination of the Structure and Construct Validity of the Wender Utah Rating Scale

The Wender Utah Rating Scale (Ward, Wender, &; Reimherr, 1993 Ward, M. F., Wender, P. H., &; Reimherr, F. W. (1993). The Wender Utah Rating Scale: An aid in the retrospective diagnosis of childhood attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 885–890.[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) has been widely used in adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) research to assess childhood symptoms retrospectively, but little research has examined its factor structure and specificity in predicting ADHD versus other psychopathology. Consequently, this study had 2 goals: (a) to examine the Wender Utah Rating Scale's structure, and (b) to explicate the construct validity of this measure by relating factors from our structural analyses to other ADHD, psychopathology, and personality measures. Structural analyses in an adult community sample (N = 294) yielded a 3-factor structure of aggression (e.g., angry), internalizing distress (e.g., depressed), and academic difficulties (e.g., underachiever). Correlational and regression analyses indicated that these factors failed to display specificity in their associations with ADHD versus other psychopathology. Aggression and internalizing distress associated most strongly with indicators of externalizing (e.g., ill temper, manipulativeness) and internalizing psychopathology (e.g., depression, anxiety), respectively. Academic difficulties associated most strongly with ADHD symptoms, but these relations were relatively weak. Taken together, these findings raise concerns about the Wender Utah Rating Scale's construct validity, although additional longitudinal research is needed to clarify to what extent the Wender Utah Rating Scale validly assesses childhood ADHD symptoms.     

Addressing Psychometric Limitations of the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale Through Item Modification

Through its frequent use, a pattern has emerged showing psychometric limitations of the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS; Gratz &; Roemer, 2004 Gratz, K. L., &; Roemer, L. (2004). Multidimensional assessment of emotion regulation and dysregulation: Development, factor structure, and initial validation of the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 26, 41–54.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). This 3-part study sought to (a) determine whether these limitations are due to a method effect by rewording all reverse-coded items in a straightforward manner and submitting them to exploratory factor analysis (EFA), and (b) examine the tenability of an adaptation of the original measure. EFA results from Study 1 (N = 743) supported retention of 29 modified items across 5 factors. Consistent with the original theoretical underpinnings of the DERS, Awareness and Clarity items loaded on the same factor. In Study 2 (N = 738), confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to examine the factor structure of the pool of items identified in Study 1. All of the modified subscales clustered strongly with one another and evidenced large loadings on a higher-order emotion regulation construct. These results were replicated in Study 3 (N = 918). Results from Study 3 also provided support for the reliability and validity of scores on the modified version of the DERS (i.e., internal consistency, convergent and criterion-related validity). These findings provide psychometric support for a modified version of the DERS.     

A Polytomous Model of Cognitive Diagnostic Assessment for Graded Data

Pursuing the line of the difference models in IRT (Thissen &; Steinberg, 1986 Thissen, D., &; Steinberg, L. (1986). A taxonomy of item response models. Psychometrika, 51:567–577. doi:10.1007/BF02295596.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), this article proposed a new cognitive diagnostic model for graded/polytomous data based on the deterministic input, noisy, and gate (Haertel, 1989 Haertel, E. H. (1989). Using restricted latent class models to map the skill structure of achievement items. Journal of Educational Measurement, 26, 333–352. doi:10.1111/j.1745-3984.1989.tb00336.x.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Junker &; Sijtsma, 2001 Junker, B. W., &; Sijtsma, K. (2001). Cognitive assessment models with few assumptions, and connections with nonparametric item response theory. Applied Psychological Measurement, 25, 258–272. doi:10.1177/01466210122032064.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), which is named the DINA model for graded data (DINA-GD). We investigated the performance of a full Bayesian estimation of the proposed model. In the simulation, the classification accuracy and item recovery for the DINA-GD model were investigated. The results indicated that the proposed model had acceptable examinees' correct attribute classification rate and item parameter recovery. In addition, a real-data example was used to illustrate the application of this new model with the graded data or polytomously scored items.     

Examining Current Conceptualizations of Psychopathology With the MMPI–2/MMPI–2–RF Restructured Clinical Scales: Preliminary Findings From a Cross-Cultural Study

Watson (2005 Watson, D. (2005). Rethinking the mood and anxiety disorders: A quantitative hierarchical model for DSM–V. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114, 522–536.[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) proposed a hierarchical reorganization of the underlying structure of emotional disorders. This study cross-culturally evaluated Watson's (2005) structure of mood and anxiety disorders, using mainly dichotomous criteria, and explored the placement of obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) in this model. It also tested Sellbom, Ben-Porath, and Bagby's (2008) proposed elaboration of the 2-factor model (positive and negative activation) that incorporates a higher order dimension of demoralization. One hundred men and 133 women from psychiatric settings in Israel completed the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory–2 (Butcher et al., 2001 Butcher, J. N., Graham, J. R., Ben-Porath, Y. S., Tellegen, A., Dahlstrom, W. G., &; Kaemmer, B. (2001). Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory–2 (MMPI–2): Manual for administration, scoring and interpretation (Rev. ed.). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.[Crossref] , [Google Scholar]) and the Maudsley Obsessional–Compulsive Inventory (Hodgson &; Rachman, 1977 Hodgson, R. J., &; Rachman, S. (1977). Obsessive–compulsive complaints. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 15, 389–395.[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). They were interviewed using the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (Sheehan et al., 1998 Sheehan, D. V., Lecrubier, Y., Sheehan, K. H., Amorim, P., Janavs, J., &; Weiller, E. (1998). The Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview (M.I.N.I.): The development and validation of a structured diagnostic psychiatric interview for DSM–IV and ICD–10. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 59, 22–33.[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Confirmatory factor analyses replicated Watson's structure for women but not for men. Mixed results were obtained regarding OCD's location in the model. Findings among women support the applicability of Watson's (2005) model across a variety of assessment modalities, as well as in a different language and for diversified cultural backgrounds. This conclusion, however, should be tempered in consideration of the results among men. Findings also provide evidence of the importance of demoralization in mood and anxiety disorders.     

Perfectionism in Argentina and the United States: Measurement Structure,Invariance, and Implications for Depression

The Revised Almost Perfect Scale (APS–R; Slaney, Mobley, Trippi, Ashby, &; Johnson, 1996 Slaney, R. B., Mobley, M., Trippi, J., Ashby, J. S., &; Johnson, D. (1996). Almost Perfect Scale Revised. Psyctests. doi:10.1037/t02161-000[Crossref] , [Google Scholar]) was designed to measure perfectionistic strivings (standards), perfectionistic concerns (discrepancy), and preferences for neatness and organization (order). In this study, English and Spanish (Arana, Keegan, &; Rutsztein, 2009 Arana, F. G., Keegan, E. G., &; Rutsztein, G. (2009). Adaptación de una medida multidimensional de perfeccionismo: la Almost Perfect Scale–Revised (APS–R). Un estudio preliminar sobre sus propiedades psicométricas en una muestra de estudiantes universitarios argentinos [Adaptation of a measure of multidimensional perfectionism: The Almost Perfect Scale–Revised. A preliminary study about its psychometrical properties on a sample of Argentine university students]. Evaluar, 9, 35–53. [Google Scholar]) versions of the APS–R were compared in samples of 283 college students in Argentina and 311 U.S. students. The results offered support for cross-national scalar invariance for discrepancy and order items but standards items, with a few exceptions, raised concerns about their cross-national comparability. Tests of latent means revealed no differences between the countries for discrepancy, but the order factor mean was higher in the U.S. sample. Age and gender had negligible effects on measurement models. Discrepancy was strongly related to depressive symptoms for both samples. Unlike in the U.S. sample, there was a significant association for the Argentina sample between standards and discrepancy. Overall, results indicated that discrepancy items performed well, order items were adequate with some measurement adjustments, and standards items should be revisited for their cross-cultural utility. Translation issues and general values in Argentina and the United States (e.g., collectivism–individualism) are discussed that might affect how perfectionism is understood and measured in different cultural contexts.     

Establishing the Measurement Invariance of the Very Short Form of the Infant Behavior Questionnaire Revised for Mothers Who Vary on Race and Poverty Status

We examined the measurement invariance of the Infant Behavior Questionnaire Revised–Very Short Form (IBQR–VSF; Putnam, Helbig, Gartstein, Rothbart, &; Leerkes, 2014 Putnam, S. P., Helbig, A. L., Gartstein, M. A., Rothbart, M. K., &; Leerkes, E. (2014). Development and assessment of Short and Very Short Forms of the Infant Behavior Questionnaire–Revised. Journal of Personality Assessment, 96, 445–458. doi:10.1080/00223891.2013.841171[Taylor &; Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) in a sample of 470 racially (185 White, 285 African American) and socioeconomically diverse mothers (158 below federal poverty threshold, 296 above federal poverty threshold) of infants. Using multigroup confirmatory factor analysis, we demonstrated configural, full metric, and full scalar invariance demonstrating that the 3-factor structure (negative emotionality, positive affectivity/surgency, orienting/regulatory capacity), pattern of item loadings, and item means were comparable for White and African American mothers, and for poor and not poor mothers. In addition, we demonstrated full error invariance across racial groups and partial error variance invariance across poverty status, demonstrating that item reliability was comparable for White and African American mothers, and both those above and below the poverty line (with the exception of a subset of items). Thus, the IBQR–VSF appears appropriate for use in racially and socioeconomically diverse samples.     

Model Conditioned Data Elasticity in Path Analysis: Assessing the “Confoundability” of Model/Data Characteristics

Much research has been directed at the validity of fit indices in Path Analysis and Structural Equation Modeling (e.g., Browne, MacCallum, Kim, Andersen, &; Glaser, 2002 Browne, M.W., MacCallum, R.C., Kim, C.T., Andersen, B.L., &; Glaser, R. (2002). When fit indices and residuals are incompatible. Psychological Methods, 7, 403–421.[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Heene, Hilbert, Draxler, Ziegler, &; Bühner, 2011 Heene, M., Hilbert, S., Draxler, C., Ziegler, M., &; Bühner, M. (2011). Masking misfit in confirmatory factor analysis by increasing unique variances: A cautionary note on the usefulness of cutoff values of fit indices. Psychological Methods, 16(3), 319–336.[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Hu &; Bentler, 1999 Hu, L., &; Bentler, P. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, J., 6(1), 1–55.[Taylor &; Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Marsh, Hau, &; Wen, 2004 Marsh, H.W., Hau, K.T., &; Wen, Z. (2004). In search of golden rules: Comment on hypothesis-testing approaches to setting cutoff values for fit indexes and dangers in overgeneralizing Hu and Bentler’s (1999) findings. Structural Equation Modeling, 11(3), 320–341.[Taylor &; Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Recent developments (e.g., Preacher, 2006 Preacher, K.J. (2006). Quantifying parsimony in structural equation modeling. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 41(3), 227–259.[Taylor &; Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Roberts &; Pashler, 2000 Roberts, S., &; Pashler, H. (2000). How persuasive is a good fit? A comment on theory testing. Psychological Review, 107(2), 358–367.[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], 2002 Roberts, S., &; Pashler, H. (2002). Reply to Rodgers and Rowe (2002). Psychological Review, 109(3), 605–607.[Crossref] , [Google Scholar]) have encouraged researchers to investigate other criteria for comparing models, including model complexity. What has not been investigated is the inherent ability of a particular data set to be fitted with a constrained set of randomly generated linear models, which we call Model Conditioned Data Elasticity (DE). In this article we show how DE can be compared with the problem of equivalent models and a more general problem of the “confoundability” of data/model combinations (see MacCallum, Wegener, Uchino, &; Fabrigar, 1993 MacCallum, R.C., Wegener, D.T., Uchino, B.N., &; Fabrigar, L.R. (1993). The problem of equivalent models in applications of covariance structure analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 114(1), 185–199.[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Using the DE package in R, we show how DE can be assessed through automated computer searches. Finally, we discuss how DE fits within the controversy surrounding the use of fit statistics.     

The Centrality of the Response Process in Construct Validity: An Illustration via the Rorschach Space Response

Recently, psychologists have emphasized the response process—that is, the psychological operations and behaviors that lead to test scores—when designing psychological tests, interpreting their results, and refining their validity. To illustrate the centrality of the response process in construct validity and test interpretation, we provide a historical, conceptual, and empirical review of the main uses of the background white space of the Rorschach cards, called space reversal (SR) and space integration (SI) in the Rorschach Performance Assessment System. We show how SR and SI's unique response processes result in different interpretations, and that reviewing their literatures with these distinct interpretations in mind produces the expected patterns of convergent and discriminant validity. That is, SR was uniquely related to measures of oppositionality; SI was uniquely related to measures of cognitive complexity; and both SR and SI were related to measures of creativity. Our review further suggests that the Comprehensive System use of a single space code for all uses of white space likely led to its lack of meta-analytic support as a measure of oppositionality (Mihura, Meyer, Dumitrascu, &; Bombel, 2013 *Mihura, J. L., Meyer, G. J., Dumitrascu, N., &; Bombel, G. (2013). The validity of individual Rorschach variables: Systematic reviews and meta-analyses of the Comprehensive System. Psychological Bulletin, 139, 548–605. doi:10.1037/a0029406[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). We close by discussing the use of the response process to improve test interpretation, develop better measures, and advance the design of research.     

Construct Validity of the Relationship Profile Test: Links With Measures of Psychopathology and Adult Attachment

This study assessed the construct validity of the Relationship Profile Test (RPT; Bornstein &; Languirand, 2003 Bornstein, R. F., &; Languirand, M. A. (2003). Healthy dependency. New York, NY: Newmarket. [Google Scholar]) with a substance abuse sample. One hundred-eight substance abuse patients completed the RPT, Experiences in Close Relationships Scale–Short Form (Wei, Russell, Mallinckrodt, &; Vogel, 2007 Wei, M., Russell, D. W., Mallinckrodt, B., &; Vogel, D. L. (2007). The Experience in Close Relationships Scale (ECR)–Short Form: Reliability, validity and factor structure. Journal of Personality Assessment, 88, 187–204.[Taylor &; Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), Personality Assessment Inventory (Morey, 1991 Morey, L. C. (1991). Personality Assessment Inventory professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. [Google Scholar]), and Symptom Checklist–90–Revised (Derogatis, 1983 Derogatis, L. R. (1983). SCL–90–R administration, scoring, and procedures manual II. Towson, MD: Clinical Psychometric Research. [Google Scholar]). Results suggest that the RPT has good construct validity when compared against theoretically related broadband measures of personality, psychopathology, and adult attachment. Overall, health dependency was negatively related to measures of psychopathology and insecure attachment, and overdependence was positively related to measures of psychopathology and attachment anxiety. Many of the predictions regarding RPT detachment and the criterion measures were not supported. Implications of these findings are discussed.     

Grit Happens: Moderating Effects on Motivational Feedback and Sport Performance

Research on motivational climates within athletics has focused on mastery and ego achievement approaches, yielding different psychological consequences (Smith, Smoll, &; Cumming, 2007 Smith, R. E., Smoll, F. L., &; Cumming, S. P. (2007). Effects of a motivational climate intervention for coaches on young athletes' sport performance anxiety. Journal of Sport &; Exercise Psychology, 29, 39–59.[Taylor &; Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Further, the motivational climate may interact with athletes' trait characteristics, such as grit, resulting in different outcomes. Grit may alter athletes' experience of the motivational climate by helping them remain oriented to their long-term quest in sport (Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews, &; Kelly, 2007 Duckworth, A. L., Peterson, C., Matthews, M. D., &; Kelly, D. R. (2007). Grit: Perseverance and passion for long-term goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 1087–1101. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.6.1087[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). However, to date, the impact of these motivational climates and potential moderating factors on athlete performance remains in question, as the research utilizing objective measures of athletic performance is limited (Harwood, Keegan, Smith, &; Raine, 2015 Harwood, C. G., Keegan, R. J., Smith, J. M., &; Raine, A. S. (2015). A systematic review of the intrapersonal correlates of motivational climate perceptions in sport and physical activity. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 18, 9–25. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2014.11.005[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). We used a motivational research paradigm (e.g., Mueller &; Dweck, 1998 Mueller, C. M., &; Dweck, C. S. (1998). Praise for intelligence can undermine children's motivation and performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 33–52. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.75.1.33[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) to examine the effects of mastery- or ego-involving feedback on 71 high school adolescent soccer players' (M_age = 15.81) performance on a kicking task. Then we explored the potential moderating effects of grit on the relationship between motivational feedback and the athletes' performance, desire to persist, and choice of task difficulty on a soccer task. Athletes performed significantly better receiving mastery- as opposed to ego-involving feedback. Further, grit was a significant moderator of the feedback-shooting performance relationship, accounting for 3.9% of variance. Simple slopes analysis revealed a significant effect for low (B = 13.32, SE_b = 4.44, p =.004, t = 2.99), but not high (B = 2.11, SE_b = 4.31, p =.63, t = 0.49), grit on task performance. These results suggest that the feedback athletes receive matters, especially for those low in grit.     

Computer Scoring of Emotional Awareness in a Nonclinical Population of Young Adults

The Levels of Emotional Awareness Scale (LEAS; Lane, Quinlan, Schwartz, Walker, &; Zeitlin, 1990 Lane, R. D., Quinlan, D. M., Schwartz, G. E., Walker, P. A., &; Zeitlin, S. B. (1990). The Levels of Emotional Awareness Scale: A cognitive-developmental measure of emotion. Journal of Personality Assessment, 55, 124–134. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa5501&;2_12[Taylor &; Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) is an open-ended measure of the ability to describe emotional reactions. Scoring the LEAS by hand is complex and time consuming (Barchard, Bajgar, Leaf, &; Lane, 2010 Barchard, K. A., Bajgar, J., Leaf, D. E., &; Lane, R. D. (2010). Computer scoring of the Levels of Emotional Awareness Scale. Behavior Research Methods, 42, 586–595. doi:10.3758/BRM.42.2.586[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Therefore, Program for Open-Ended Scoring (POES; Leaf &; Barchard, 2010 Leaf, D. E., &; Barchard, K. A. (2010). Program for Open-Ended Scoring [POES] version 1.4.1 [Unpublished program]. Available from Kim Barchard, Department of Psychology, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, 4505 Maryland Parkway, Las Vegas, NV, 89154–5030, kim.barchard@unlv.edu [Google Scholar]) was designed to score the LEAS quickly and easily. Using 268 undergraduates, this article compares traditional LEAS hand scoring to 6 POES methods, 2 of which are holistic methods that have never before been examined. Based on split-half reliability, correlations with measures of emotional and social intelligence, and partial correlations once response length and vocabulary were partialed out, we recommend 3 of the POES methods when testing nonclinical samples of young adults. Because POES scoring is fast and efficient, it allows more researchers and clinicians to use the LEAS, thus moving away from self-report measures of emotional awareness.     

A Cross-Cultural Analysis of the Infant Behavior Questionnaire Very Short Form: An Item Response Theory Analysis of Infant Temperament in New Zealand

The Infant Behavior Questionnaire–Revised Very Short Form (IBQ–R VSF; Putnam, Helbig, Gartstein, Rothbart, &; Leerkes, 2014 Putnam, S. P., Helbig, A. L., Gartstein, M. A., Rothbart, M. K., &; Leerkes, E. (2014). Development and assessment of short and very short forms of the Infant Behavior Questionnaire–Revised. Journal of Personality Assessment, 96, 445–458. doi:10.1080/00223891.2013.841171[Taylor &; Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) is a newly published measure of infant temperament with a 3-factor structure. Recently Peterson et al. (2017 Peterson, E. R., Waldie, K. E., Mohal, J., Reese, E., Atatoa Carr, P.E., Grant, C. C., &; Morton, S. M. B. (2017). Infant Behavior Questionnaire–Revised Very Short Form: A new factor structure's associations with parenting perceptions and child language outcomes. Journal of Personality Assessment. Advance online publication. doi:10.1080/00223891.2017.1287709[Taylor &; Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]) suggested that a 5-factor structure (Positive Affectivity/Surgency, Negative Emotionality, Orienting Capacity, Affiliation/Regulation, and Fear) was more parsimonious and showed promising reliability and predictive validity in a large, diverse sample. However, little is known about the 5-factor model's precision across the temperament dimensions range and whether it discriminates equally well across ethnicities. A total of 5,567 mothers responded to the IBQ–R VSF in relation to their infants (N = 5,639) between 23 and 52 weeks old. Using item response theory, we conducted a series of 2 parameter logistic item response models and found that 5 IBQ–R VSF temperament dimensions showed a good distribution of estimates across each latent trait range and these estimates centered close to the population mean. The IBQ–R VSF was also similarly precise across 4 ethnic groups (European, Māori, Pacific peoples, and Asians), suggesting that it can be used as comparable measure for infant temperament in a diversity of ethnic groups.