Convergence and predictive validity in measures of optimism and pessimism: Sequential studies

Optimism and pessimism are personality variables that have repeatedly been shown to affect health, job performance, and social relationships. Various instruments purport to measure these dispositions that differ substantially in their theoretical and measurement models. While research has examined relations between subsets of these measures, their unique predictive ability has been neglected. Three sequential studies evaluated the interrelation and predictive ability of the three most utilized instruments, the Life Orientation Test (LOT), the O/P Instrument (OPI) and variants of the Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ). Consistent with expectations, measures sharing a future-expectancy component (LOT and OPI) were moderately related and most predictive of health, depression, and coping. ASQ measures were modestly related to the LOT and OPI and offered less consistent predictions.     

Attributional style and athletic performance: Strategic optimism and defensive pessimism

ObjectivesTwo studies examined the relationship between explanatory style measured with the Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ), Peterson, Semmel, von Baeyer, Abramson, Metalsky, and Seligman (1982. The Attributional Style Questionnaire. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 6, 287–299) and athletic performance.DesignCorrelational designs were used to examine relationships between the predictor variables of attributional style and dispositional optimism and the criterion variable of athletic performance. Study one also examined the effect of soccer match outcome as a moderational factor.MethodFor study 1, 20 male soccer players completed the ASQ and their performance across eight matches was videotaped and coded on a variety of measures (goals, fouls, attempted passes, completed passes). For study 2, 18 female basketball players completed both the ASQ and the Life Orientation Test (LOT), Scheier and Carver (1978. Optimism, coping and health: Assessment and implications of generalized outcome expectancies. Health Psychology, 4, 219–247). Relationships between these scales and a variety of performance measures were examined.ResultsConsistent with findings from Seligman, Nolen-Hoeksema, Thornton, N., and Thornton, K. (1990. Explanatory style as a mechanism of disappointing athletic performance. Psychological Science, 1, 143–146), a significant positive relationship was found between the ASQ measure of optimism and athletic performance among the soccer players in study 1. In addition, optimistic soccer players demonstrated better performance during a loss than did pessimists, whereas no significant performance differences were found between these two groups during a subsequent win. Findings from study 2 were less consistent, revealing both positive (optimists had more assists and steals) and negative (optimists had fewer rebounds and more fouls) relationships. A subsequent content analysis of the open-ended responses on the ASQ suggests that the observed negative relationships were a function of these female athletes attributing negative outcomes to lack of effort (defensive pessimism) as opposed to lack of ability (depressive pessimism).ConclusionsThe findings highlight the need to differentiate between these two forms of pessimism and their differential impact on performance. The importance of including an assessment of perceived controllability as an attributional dimension in future research is discussed.     

Optimism, neuroticism, coping, and symptom reports: an alternative interpretation of the Life Orientation Test

Found in two studies that the Life Orientation Test (LOT) had limited discriminant validity relative to measures of neuroticism. Furthermore, although previous correlations of the LOT with measures of symptom reports and coping behaviors were replicated, these correlations were eliminated when neuroticism was controlled. In contrast, the correlations of symptoms and coping with neuroticism remained significant when LOT scores were controlled. Thus, the LOT is virtually indistinguishable from measures of neuroticism, and previously reported findings using this scale are perhaps more parsimoniously interpreted as reflecting neuroticism rather than optimism. These findings are discussed in terms of existing support for models of optimism and self-control and general methodological issues in studies of personality and health.     

Explanatory style and Immunoglobulin A (IgA).

The construct of explanatory style has been related to numerous aspects of human psychology, including health. Our research has focused on the effects of various psychological variables on the immune system, in particular Immunoglobulin A (IgA). We had participants fill out the Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ), the predominant measure of explanatory style, and assayed saliva samples for secretory IgA. No relationship was observed between overall ASQ score and IgA, or composite optimism score and IgA. However, we observed significant negative correlations between both the composite pessimism score and IgA, as well as the hopelessness score and IgA. Pessimistic explanatory style may therefore be related to immune system deficits and poor health.     

Explanatory style and immunoglobulin A (IgA)

The construct of explanatory style has been related to numerous aspects of human psychology, including health. Our research has focused on the effects of various psychological variables on the immune system, in particular Immunoglobulin A (IgA). We had participants fill out the Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ), the predominant measure of explanatory style, and assayed saliva samples for secretory IgA. No relationship was observed between overall ASQ score and IgA, or composite optimism score and IgA. However we observed significant negative correlations between both the composite pessimism score and IgA, as well as the hopelessness score and IgA. Pessimistic explanatory style may therefore be related to immune system deficits and poor health.     

Screening for developmental and behavioral problems

Early detection of developmental and behavioral/mental health problems is greatly facilitated when quality instruments are deployed. This article describes how to identify accurate measures and presents standards for screening tests. Included is a table delineating accurate tools for primary care: typically those relying on information from parents (e.g., PEDS, ASQ, PSC, etc.) as well as measures useful in settings where providers have more time and skill at eliciting behaviors from children (e.g., Brigance screens). Screening measures should be used in the context of developmental surveillance; the longitudinal process of incorporating professional observations into decision-making about children's developmental needs.     

The role of optimism in patients with tinnitus and in patients with hearing impairment

Abstract

Optimism was investigated in a sample of audiology clinic patients, consisting of one group of tinnitus sufferers (N = 30) and one group of hearing impaired subjects not experiencing tinnitus (N = 44). Optimism was measured by the Life Orientation Test (LOT). In the tinnitus group the LOT correlated significantly with measures of tinnitus related distress and in the hearing impaired group with measures of disability and emotional reactions due to the hearing impairment. Cronbach's alphas for the measures used were generally high. Principal components analysis of the LOT confirmed earlier findings by showing two separate factors; one with the positively worded LOT items reflecting the presence of optimism and one with the negatively worded LOT items reflecting the presence of pessimism. The results indicate that dispositional optimism is an usable concept in research with audiological samples, and that optimism is related with tinnitus distress and experienced disability and emotional reactions due to hearing impairment. Further research should investigate the possible role of personality factors in tinnitus and hearing impairment.     

Measuring Optimism in Organizations: Development of a Workplace Explanatory Style Questionnaire

Some researchers measure optimism by analysing explanations for hypothetical scenarios in explanatory style questionnaires. The most commonly used instrument, the Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ), has been shown to predict success in business, education and sport. However, these predictions were achieved by using composite scores of subscales. Our analysis of 15 measures revealed the ASQ and many other explanatory style questionnaires have low internal consistency. Furthermore, the majority of these measures use situations that have poor face validity for corporate applications, while some work-specific scenarios are only relevant to narrow domains such as selling insurance. To fulfil the need for a work-related explanatory style measure that could assess levels of optimism in any organizational setting, we developed the Workplace Explanations Survey (WES). This 5-factor measure was tested on a sample of 341 individuals working in a range of organizations and it has good internal consistency. We anticipate the WES will stimulate research into workplace optimism and provide clearer insights for optimism training, thus boosting both individual and organizational success.     

Attributional Style and Personality as Predictors of Happiness and Mental Health

This paper contains two studies which set out to examine to what extent attributional style (internal, stable, global) and personality traits predicted happiness and psychiatric symptoms in a normal, non-clinical, population of young people in their early twenties. Two hundred and three participants completed five questionnaires: the Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ) (version one & version two), Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, Oxford Happiness Inventory, and Langner 22-Item Measure. Sample 1 (n = 120) completed ASQ version one (in both positive and negative situations) and sample 2 (n = 83) completed ASQ version two (in expanded negative situations). Regressional analysis showed that ASQ (in both versions) was the significant predictor of happiness and mental health accounting for 20% to 38% of variances. The ASQ was significantly associated with extraversion and neuroticism. Further, with happiness and mental health as dependent variables and attributional style, personality traits, and demographic variables as independent variables respectively, extraversion and attributional stability (in positive situations) were the significant predictors of happiness accounting for 59% of the total variance whilst neuroticism and psychoticism were the significant predictors of mental health accounting for 53% of the total variance. The results indicated that optimistic attributional style in positive situations was a stronger predictor of self-reported happiness than mental health and pessimistic attributional style in negative situations was a predictor of both happiness and mental health. Extraverts tended to have optimistic explanatory style for positive outcomes whereas neurotics tended to have pessimistic explanatory style for negative outcomes.     

The Ages & Stages Questionnaire: Social–Emotional: A validation study of a mother‐report questionnaire on a clinical mother–infant sample

Mother‐report questionnaires of infant socioemotional functioning are increasingly used to screen for clinical referral to infant mental health services. The validity of the Ages & Stages Questionnaire: Social Emotional (ASQ:SE; J. Squires, D. Bricker, K. Heo, & E. Twombly, 2002) was investigated in a sample of help‐seeking mothers with young infants. It was compared with independent observer‐rated dyadic interactions, and the quality of dyadic relationships was rated by expert clinicians. The ASQ:SE ratings also were compared with questionnaires on maternal psychological stress and distress. The ASQ:SE did not correlate significantly with either external ratings of dyadic interaction or clinically assessed relationship qualities, though the latter two were strongly associated with each other. In contrast, ASQ:SE scores were associated with questionnaires relating to maternal psychological distress. This was especially true for mothers classified as depressed. Furthermore, reports on the ASQ:SE were strongly predicted by maternal stress. The study points to some problems with the concurrent validity of the ASQ:SE in clinical samples. It also demonstrates a close link between mothers' psychological distress and their ratings of infant social and emotional functioning. Further research should investigate the extent to which the ASQ:SE specifically measures infant functioning or maternal distress, and how it functions in clinical versus nonclinical samples.     

Validation of the Chinese version of the Life Orientation Test with a robust weighted least squares approach

Of the several measures of optimism presently available in the literature, the Life Orientation Test (LOT; Scheier & Carver, 1985) has been the most widely used in empirical research. This article explores, confirms, and cross-validates the factor structure of the Chinese version of the LOT with ordinal data by using robust weighted least squares (robust WLS) estimation within the Taiwanese cultural context. Results of exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses using 3 different samples (Ntotal = 1,119) show that the factor structure of the Chinese version of the LOT is better conceptualized as a correlated 2-factor model than a single-factor model. The composite reliability was 0.7 for the "disagreement on optimism" factor and 0.74 for the "agreement on optimism" factor. In addition, comparison results of the 2 estimators using empirical data and simulation data suggest that robust WLS is less biased than maximum likelihood (ML) for estimating factor loadings and interfactor correlations in the factor analytic model of the Chinese version of the LOT. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).     

Measures of self-efficacy and optimism in older adults with generalized anxiety

This study provides initial psychometric data for the Self-Efficacy Scale (SES) and the Life Orientation Test (LOT) in a sample of older adults with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). Participants included 76 adults, ages 60 to 80, who met Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.) criteria for GAD. Self-efficacy and outcome expectancies were lower in older adults with GAD relative to published data from younger and older community samples. Both the SES and LOT demonstrated adequate internal consistency. Confirmatory factor analysis provided evidence for optimism and pessimism factors within the LOT and exploratory factor analysis of the SES suggested threefactors that overlap with previous findings. Overall, the data support the potential utility of these instruments in late-life GAD and set the stage forfuture investigations of generalized self-efficacy expectancies and outcome expectancies (or optimism) as they relate to the prediction of affect and behavior in this group.     

Attachment Styles and Construction of Self in a Clinical Group of Aerophobic: A Pilot Study

These constructivist exploratory study set out to explore the relationship between flying phobia and attachment styles, as well as between phobia and construction of self, others and world. We hyphothesised that individual affected by flying phobia would display avoidant and anxious-ambivalent attachment styles, and that their core constructs would be semantically related to primary ??freedom/dependence?? construct. 40 individuals affected by aerophobia were administered with two self reported instruments (AAQ and ASQ) after compiled a self-characterization. The phobic group was significantly connected to an avoidant style. In addition the phobic individuals define themselves as dependant, fearful, powerless and reserved. Clinical implication of this study, limitations and future directions are discussed.     

The Minnesota Studies of Creative Behavior: National and International Extensions

ABSTRACT On the basis of over 300 reports by independent investigators and voluminous correspondence from all of the United States and over 36 foreign countries, the author summarizes some of the national and international extensions of the Minnesota (now Georgia) Studies of Creative Behavior. In these extensions, other investigators have used the research instruments and instructional materials developed by the author and his associates. Instruments have been translated into at least seventeen different languages, and one book, Gifted Children in the Classroom, has been published in both Spanish and Japanese. In the judgment of the author, there is little relationship between the kinds of effort that have an impact on research and the ones that influence educational practice. The most popular topic of the research studies collected was the validity of the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking. Unfortunately, most of these studies have been preoccupied with the relationship between measures of creativity and measures of intelligence and school achievement. Nevertheless, these studies did yield a variety of evidence of construct, concurrent, and predictive validity, and test-retest reliability. The author makes a plea for future investigators to build upon rather than endlessly repeat these studies and make use of the theoretical rationales upon which the instruments and materials have been developed.     

Convergent, discriminant, and incremental validity of competing measures of emotional intelligence

This study investigated the convergent, discriminant, and incremental validity of one ability test of emotional intelligence (EI)--the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso-Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT)--and two self-report measures of EI--the Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i) and the self-report EI test (SREIT). The MSCEIT showed minimal relations to the EQ-i and SREIT, whereas the latter two measures were moderately interrelated. Among EI measures, the MSCEIT was discriminable from well-studied personality and well-being measures, whereas the EQ-i and SREIT shared considerable variance with these measures. After personality and verbal intelligence were held constant, the MSCEIT was predictive of social deviance, the EQ-i was predictive of alcohol use, and the SREIT was inversely related to academic achievement. In general, results showed that ability EI and self-report EI are weakly related and yield different measurements of the same person.     

Spiritual Assessment in African-Americans: A Review of Measures of Spirituality Used in Health Research

Background A number of instruments have been developed for investigating relationships between spirituality and health, and have been used to assess spirituality in African-Americans. Yet, the cultural appropriateness for African-Americans of these instruments has not been investigated to date. Objectives To evaluate the construct validity and reliability of spirituality measures used in health research from 1982 to 2005. Method Systematic review of the literature. Results Thirty five studies and five measures of spirituality met the inclusion criteria. Most of the spirituality measures were developed in primarily Caucasian-American samples. African-Americans were represented in 71% of the studies (n = 25) using spirituality measures in health research. Distinct cultural attributes of African-American spirituality were omitted in most of the spirituality measures. Two studies were retrieved in which psychometric evaluation was conducted in entirely African-American samples. Discussion Spirituality is a significant cultural experience and belief that influences the health behaviors of African-Americans. The lack of a culturally appropriate measure of African-American spirituality is a major limitation of studies investigating spirituality and health in this population. Development of a culturally appropriate and sensitive measure of spirituality in African-Americans is suggested to strengthen the quality of research in this area.     

The role of early fine and gross motor development on later motor and cognitive ability

The aim of this study was to determine whether information obtained from measures of motor performance taken from birth to 4 years of age predicted motor and cognitive performance of children once they reached school age. Participants included 33 children aged from 6 years to 11 years and 6 months who had been assessed at ages 4 months to 4 years using the ages and stages questionnaires (ASQ: [Squires, J. K., Potter, L., & Bricker, D. (1995). The ages and stages questionnaire users guide. Baltimore: Brookes]). These scores were used to obtain trajectory information consisting of the age of asymptote, maximum or minimum score, and the variance of ASQ scores. At school age, both motor and cognitive ability were assessed using the McCarron Assessment of Neuromuscular Development (MAND: [McCarron, L. (1997). McCarron assessment of neuromuscular development: Fine and gross motor abilities (revised ed.). Dallas, TX: Common Market Press.]), and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Version IV (WISC-IV: [Wechsler, D. (2004). WISC-IV integrated technical and interpretive manual. San Antonio, Texas: Harcourt Assessment]). In contrast to previous research, results demonstrated that, although socio-economic status (SES) predicted fine motor performance and three of four cognitive domains at school age, gestational age was not a significant predictor of later development. This may have been due to the low-risk nature of the sample. After controlling for SES, fine motor trajectory information did not account for a significant proportion of the variance in school aged fine motor performance or cognitive performance. The ASQ gross motor trajectory set of predictors accounted for a significant proportion of the variance for cognitive performance once SES was controlled for. Further analysis showed a significant predictive relationship for gross motor trajectory information and the subtests of working memory and processing speed. These results provide evidence for detecting children at risk of developmental delays or disorders with a parent report questionnaire prior to school age. The findings also add to recent investigations into the relationship between early motor development and later cognitive function, and support the need for ongoing research into a potential etiological relationship.     

Short‐term psychodynamic infant–parent interventions at Child health centers: Outcomes on parental depression and infant social–emotional functioning

Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) demonstrate efficacy of parent–infant psychotherapy, but its applicability and effectiveness in public health care are less known. The method followed is Naturalistic study evaluating Short‐term Psychodynamic Infant–Parent Interventions at Child Health Centers (SPIPIC) in Stockholm, Sweden. One hundred distressed mothers with infants were recruited by supervised nurses. Six therapists provided 4.3 therapy sessions on average (SD = 3.3). Sessions typically included the mothers, often with the baby present, while fathers rarely attended sessions. The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) and the Ages and Stages Questionnaire: Social–Emotional (ASQ: SE) were distributed at baseline and at 3 and 9 months later. Data from a nonclinical group were collected simultaneously to provide norm data. Multilevel growth models on the mothers’ questionnaire scores showed significant decreases over time on both measures. Nine months after baseline, 50% achieved a reliable change on the EPDS and 14% on the ASQ: SE. Prepost effect‐sizes (d) were 0.70 and 0.40 for EPDS and ASQ: SE, figures that are comparable to results of other controlled studies. Psychotherapists integrated with public health care seem to achieve good results when supporting distressed mothers with brief interventions in the postnatal period. SPIPIC needs to be compared with other modalities and organizational frameworks.     

The relationship of attributional style to agoraphobia severity, depression, and treatment outcome

The present study examined the relationship of attributional style, as measured with a revised version of the Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ) and measures of agoraphobia severity, depression, and treatment outcome in 73 Ss who met DSM-III criteria for agoraphobia with panic attacks and participated in one of three 13-week treatment conditions: paradoxical intention, graduated exposure, or progressive deep muscle relaxation training. Subjects completed assessments at four periods: pretreatment, midtreatment, posttreatment, and at 3 month follow-up. In addition to the three dimensions typically examined on the ASQ, this revised version also measured Ss' estimates of the perceived importance, and future likelihood for both positive and negative events. Congruent with previous research, moderate but somewhat inconsistent associations were observed between attributional style and depression both within and across assessment periods. Predictions about associations between attributional style and agoraphobic severity were not supported; however, an interaction was observed between depression and attributional style with respect to severity of agoraphobia. There was no evidence of group differences across treatment types, although there were several significant changes in attributional style across time. Attributions for health related events were also examined. Conceptual, clinical, and research issues related to the findings are discussed.     

Construct validity of the Life Orientation Test

The Life Orientation Test (LOT; Scheier & Carver, 1985) is a common measure of optimism. Previous studies of the convergent and discriminant (vis-à-vis neuroticism) validity of the LOT have relied solely on questionnaires. Our Study 1 was a multitrait, multimethod investigation of the LOT incorporating Gottschalk and Gleser's (1969) method of content analysis of speech samples as a nonquestionnaire assessment method. The LOT did not correlate significantly with the Gottschalk Hope Scale (Gottschalk, 1974) derived from speech samples. Study 2 was an initial attempt to determine the nature of the differences between these alternate measures of optimism. In particular, it was hypothesized and found that the LOT was more fakable than the Hope Scale. Participants who received special instructions to "fake good" scored significantly higher on the LOT than did control participants who received no special instructions. Faking instructions did not significantly affect scores on the Hope Scale.