Type a personality: Correlations with personality variables and nonverbal emotional expressions during interpersonal competition

Facial and other nonverbal behaviors of 52 male and female participants in an interpersonal anagrams competition were correlated with a variety of self-report personality measures. Facial expressions suggestive of negative affect were significantly positively correlated with the Framingham Type A scale and the Job Involvement and Hard-Driving subscales of the Jenkins Activity Survey. A composite nonverbal index correlated significantly with Framingham Type A, Jenkins Job Involvement and the Extraversion scale of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire. The pattern of correlations between the nonverbal and personality measures supported the view that Type A individuals are characterized by both self-reports of and facial expression of more anger/hostility than are Type B individuals.     

Personality, type A behavior, and coronary heart disease: the role of emotional expression

The nature of the relation between personality factors and coronary heart disease (CHD, the nation's greatest killer) is one of the most important if controversial issues in the field of psychology and health. Although there is still a great deal of conceptual confusion, progress is being made in refining the key components of a predisposition to heart disease. In this article we examine the construct of a coronary-prone personality in the context of the relations among personality, emotional expression, and disease. Special consideration is given to mode of measurement of the Type A behavior pattern--Structural Interview (SI) versus Jenkins Activity Survey (JAS)--and to components and non-Type A correlates of the general coronary-prone construct. Fifty middle-aged men who had had a myocardial infarction were compared with 50 healthy controls in terms of relevant aspects of their psychological functioning. Results indicate that the SI is better than the JAS as a predictor of coronary heart disease (CHD) because of its attention to emotional expressive style. Traditional emphases on hurry sickness in coronary proneness are deemed wholly inadequate. Furthermore, the results indicate that depression, anxiety, or both may relate to CHD independently of and in addition to Type A behavior. Other aspects of personality and social support are also discussed in the context of improving the construct of coronary proneness.     

Impression formation: the role of expressive behavior

This research examined the effects of personality/social skills and individual differences in expressive style on impression formation. Particular attention was given to the role of nonverbal behaviors in the formation of initial impressions. Sixty-two subjects were measured on self-report personality and communication skill scales, on posed emotional sending ability, and on physical attractiveness. Subjects were then videotaped while giving a spontaneous "explanation." Trained coders measured five separate nonverbal cue factors displayed by the subjects in the videotapes. Groups of untrained judges viewed the tapes and rated their impressions of the subjects on scales of likability, speaking effectiveness, and expressivity-confidence. Male subjects who were nonverbally skilled and extraverted tended to display more outwardly focused and fluid expressive behaviors, and made more favorable impressions on judges, than did males who scored low on the measures of nonverbal skills and extraversion. Females who were nonverbally skilled displayed more facial expressiveness, which led to more favorable initial impressions. Sex differences may reflect basic differences in the acquisition and use of expressive nonverbal cues by males and females.     

The Jenkins Activity Survey measure of type a and frustration-induced anger

The present study examined the physiological and self-report responses of Type A and B males, defined by the Jenkins Activity Survey (JAS), to an anger-inducing frustration manipulation. Subjects jointly performed a task with a confederate and either were or were not frustrated by the confederate in their attempt to gain a prize. Physiological and self-report measures indicated that the frustration manipulation generated anger, but there was no evidence that Type A subjects were more angered than Type B subjects. Such findings may reflect a weakness in the Jenkins Activity Survey for adequately measuring the hostility component of the Type A pattern.The research reported here was supported by a Biomedical Sciences Support Grant RRO 7037 to the second author.     

Type A behavior,anger expression,and reactions to anger imagery

The experiment investigated the effects of Type A behavior, anger expression, and gender on perceptions of control and heart rate. Jenkins Activity Survey defined Type A and B subjects, categorized as either high or low in anger expression, were asked to recall, image, and generate self-referent statements about angry situations. State anger and heart rate were measured during all of the anger induction conditions, and ratings of imagery vividness and perceptions of control for self and others were taken following the recalled and imaged anger conditions. The results, with both the heart rate and self-report measures, indicated that the effects of the independent variables were interactive and situationally dependent. Type A behavior was associated with increased heart rate in two experimental conditions (mood anger and recalled anger), and, in one instance, this effect was amplified in male subjects (recalled anger). The self-report results yielded interactional effects that most commonly took the form of high anger expression, with male Type A's providing higher ratings of state anger, more vivid anger imagery, and lower perceived self-control ratings than did other categories of subjects. Taken together, these results suggest that anger expressiveness, particularly among males, amplifies the usual reactions attributed to Type A's, and that such effects are mediated by the threat of loss of control. Further, the observed interactive relationships limit the generalizability of A/B differences and raise definitional questions about Type A behavior.     

Communication and type A coronary-prone behavior: preliminary studies of expressive and instrumental communication

This paper reports two studies of the expressive and instrumental characteristics of communication associated with the Type A coronary-prone behavior pattern. Using Norton's communicators' style instrument to measure expressive behavior of college students, Study 1 with 50 men and 79 women showed that Type A persons are more dominant, contentious, precise, animated, and dramatic communicators than Type B persons. Study 2 with 48 men and 80 women yielded no differences in the use of persuasive strategies by Type A and Type B college undergraduates.     

Would a Type A Date Another Type A?: Influence of Behavior Type and Personal Attributes In the Selection of Dating Partners1

Certain behavior type patterns in couples have been associated with heightened interpersonal distress and coronary heart disease risk. However, the factors that lead to such pairings seldom have been investigated. The present study examined the associations between personal behavior type and gender-role self-concept related to the selection of hypothetical dating partners. Eighty-one male and 116 female heterosexual college students completed questionnaires to assess behavior type (Jenkins Activity Survey) and gender-role self-concept (Personal Attributes Questionnaire, PAQ). Participants chose a preferred “dating partner” from vignettes differing in the degree of Type A-Type B behavior displayed. Results of CATMOD and chi-square analyses were generally consistent with the similarity theory of interpersonal attraction. Type A and B males as well as Type B females preferred hypothetical dating partners identical to their own behavior type. Type A females with high PAQ Masculinity scores selected Type A dates, whereas Type A females with low PAQ Masculinity preferred Type Bs. Implications for the selection of actual dating partners, spouses, potential interpersonal distress, and coronary heart disease risk are discussed.     

Type A behavior in employed women: relation to work, marital, and leisure variables, social support, stress, tension, and health

Ninety-one women employed full-time were administered the Jenkins Activity Survey (JAS; Jenkins, Rosenman, & Zyzanski; 1974) and the Framingham Type A Scale (FTAS; Haynes, Levine, Scotch, Feinleib, & Kennel, 1978). Information concerning various work and nonwork-related variables was obtained via questionnaire or interview. Type A women had higher occupational levels and reported more demanding jobs and higher stress and tension than Type B women. Type A and B women did not differ in their reports of marital adjustment or in total hours spent in leisure activities. Type A behavior was related to both self-reported stress and tension--and for married women only, poorer self-reported physical health. Social support from various sources was not found to be related to Type A or Type B. Curiously, Type A was related to more reported stress and tension for women who felt they had many sources of support but not for women who did not perceive their having many sources of support.     

The Effect of Experience on the Goal-Setting Behavior of Type A and Type B Individuals

The effect of experience on the goal-setting behavior of Type A and Type B individuals was assessed using anagram tasks. Sixty men and 60 women were administered the Jenkins Activity Survey as well as a questionnaire assessing their previous experience with anagram tasks. Before each of three anagram trials, subjects set a performance goal and indicated how certain they were that they could reach that goal. The analyses indicated that Type A men had the largest differences between performance goals and actual performance, even though men, in general, were more certain that they would reach their goals. Differences across trials, however, decreased for all individuals. Men with the most prior self-reported experience were least satisfied with their performance. Of interest was the finding that Type B women had higher difference scores than did Type A women.     

Examining the relationships among self-report measures of the Type A behavior pattern: the effects of dimensionality, measurement error, and differences in underlying constructs

The most widely used self-report measures of the Type A behavior pattern (TABP) are the Bortner scale, the Framingham scale, and the Jenkins Activity Survey (JAS). Though high scores on each of these measures have been linked to the development of coronary heart disease, their intercorrelations are rather low, suggesting that they may reflect different aspects of TABP. This study indicates that the low correlations among the Bortner scale, the Framingham scale, and the JAS are due not only to differences in underlying constructs but also to measurement error and multidimensionality. These results also identify several psychometric problems, which raise serious questions regarding the use of these measures in TABP research. Suggestions for the development of new measures of TABP are offered.     

The effects of hormones,Type A behavior pattern,and provocation on aggression in men

Thirty-eight male college students, classified as either Type A or Type B based on their Jenkins Activity Survey (JAS-T) scores, competed in a reaction time task that allowed them to administer shocks to an increasingly provocative fictitious opponent. Salivary testosterone and cortisol were measured both prior to and after the task. Aggression was defined as the level of shock the subject was willing to set for the opponent. The results of this study indicate that a relationship exists between endogenous testosterone levels in men and direct physical aggression. Some evidence for the moderating effects of hormones on the level of aggression expressed by Type As was observed. No direct relationship between Type A and aggression was found.     

Sex typing and the coronary-prone behavior pattern

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between sex-role orientation and the coronary-prone behavior pattern [Type A]. Ninety-six males and eighty-four females were administered the Bem Sex Role Inventory and the student version of the Jenkins Activity Survey. The results showed that, irrespective of sex, Type A subjects were significantly more instrumental (masculine) and less expressive (feminine) than Type B subjects. Consistent with previous research females were found to be more expressive than males; however, the sole predictor of instrumentality was A/B classification. The potential significance of these findings for refining predictions of coronary artery and heart disease is discussed and recommendations for future research are offered.Portions of this paper were presented at the Third Annual Meeting of the Society of Behavioral Medicine, Chicago, March 1982.     

Type a behavior,field dependence,and hypervigilance: Toward increased Type A specificity

Field dependence and hypervigilance are two modes of sensory information processing that have been related to cardiovascular functioning. Two studies examined the relationship between these variables and Type A behavior. In both studies, Jenkins Activity Survey-defined Type A and B subjects were assessed for field dependence by the Embedded Figures Test (EFT) and then performed a size estimation task—the measure of hypervigilance. Results indicated that field-dependent Type A's were most hypervigilant. The possible contribution that perceptual style might make to the greater predictive specificity of Type A measures was discussed.Portions of this research were presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, Toronto, Canada, August 1984. The authors express their appreciation to Lois Haggard for the design of materials for Study II, and to Rick Smith and Kathy Connell for assistance in conducting Study II.     

Gender differences in the relationship between hostility and the type A behavior pattern

A group of 97 male and 111 female undergraduates completed the Jenkins Activity Survey, the Framingham Type A Scale, the Adjective Checklist Type A Scale, the Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, and the Buss-Durkee Hostility Inventory. A factor analysis revealed three dimensions: Anger-Emotionality, Anger-Aggression, and Residual Pattern A. All Type A measures loaded highly on the Type A factor, with the Jenkins Activity Survey loading the highest. The Framingham Type A Scale was related to Anger-Emotionality, the Adjective Checklist Type A Scale was related to Anger-Aggression, and the Jenkins Activity Survey was related to neither of the anger dimensions. Women scored higher than men on Anger-Emotionality and the Guilt, Resentment, and Irritability subscales and lower than men on the Assaultiveness subscale. Women showed higher correlations between Type A and the Guilt subscale, and men between Type A and the Suspiciousness subscale. We conclude that Type A is a multidimensional construct that manifests itself differently in men and women.     

The assessment of type a behaviour: A critique

Abstract

The validity of type A behaviour (TAB) as a precursor to heart disease is now increasingly subject to debate. This review examines some issues in the assessment of TAB that may have confused rather than clarified such debate. The status and interrelations between four widely used measures of TAB (Jenkins Activity Survey, Framingham Type A Scale, Bortner Rating Scale, and Structured Interview) are described, and a number of problems in their use discussed, including: differing conceptualisations of TAB, drifting criteria of assessment, failure to obtain accurate self-report of TAB, and difficulties associated with the measurement of TAB in populations other than male non-manual workers. Future research should attempt to obviate such difficulties, while elucidating pathogenic behaviours and attitudes, and how these interact with other variables to increase the risk of heart disease. Finally, the value of a state measure of TAB is discussed.     

A study of the relationship between individual differences in nonverbal expressiveness and factors of personality and social interaction

Some theoretical and applied implications of individual differences in nonverbal expressiveness were investigated in a medical setting. In Study I, the abilities of 21 physicians to express different emotions through voice tone were assessed and related to physician personality and to actual patient ratings of the physician. Study II replicated Study I using visual as well as vocal cues (i.e., videotapes) of a new sample of physicians, and added a study of physician greetings. It was found that: (1) Aspects of expressive ability were reliably correlated with a cluster of personality traits, thus supporting the notion that nonverbal affective style may be a window to inner dispositions; and (2) expressive ability was related to patient satisfaction with the interpersonal manner of their physicians and to the judged likeability of the physician's greeting, thus providing evidence for the importance of this ability for social interaction.     

Gender Effects in Information Processing on a Nonverbal Decoding Task

Women typically outperform men on the ability to assess other people??s nonverbal behavior. This difference might occur because women are taught to be more sensitive to emotional and nonverbal cues at a very early age compared to men. As a consequence, women might use a more favorable cognitive processing style than men during nonverbal decoding. The present study investigated whether this gender difference is due to the use of different cognitive information processing styles (global or local). Participants (N?=?137) were Swiss undergraduate students that were randomly assigned to either a global (focusing on the whole) or a local (focusing on details) priming of information processing style, or to a control group. They then performed a nonverbal decoding task. Results showed that compared to the control group, local priming had beneficial and global priming detrimental effects for nonverbal decoding accuracy. This was due to an improved performance in men after the local priming; women??s performance was not significantly affected by the local priming. Global priming increased nonverbal decoding accuracy in men and decreased performance in women. We conclude that women already use the more beneficial local processing style by default and that men??s performance can be boosted when providing them a processing strategy.     

Nonverbal emotion displays, communication modality, and the judgment of personality

The goal of this research was to investigate the impact of nonverbal expressive cues on the attribution of the Big Five personality traits. Expressive cues of fear, disgust, happiness, and sadness were elicited in a sample of 22 encoders while watching films, narrating, and posing. Encoders’ personalities were rated by themselves and unacquainted raters who watched the encoders, and blind judges rated the traits of a typical student. Expressive cues influenced the raters’ attribution of personality, but this influence was weakest when the encoders expressed happiness (vs. negative emotions) and when they were narrating an emotional experience (when the cues were least potent). Negative and strong expressive cues interfered with the application of a normative, and more accurate, judgment strategy.     

Goal Orientation,Type A Behaviour and Telic Dominance in Middle-aged Men

Reversal theory is proposed as a psychological basis for the reduction of Type A behaviour. Specifically Telic Dominance (a construct used in Reversal theory) is proposed to explain goal orientation in Type A behaviour. As an initial test of this hypothesis Jenkins Activity Survey and Framingham Type A scores were correlated with Telic Dominance Scale (TDS) scores for a sample of 99 men aged 45-59 years selected from the Caerphilly Collaborative Heart Disease Study population. The hypothesised pattern of associated between Type A and TDS scores was found only with the Jenkins Activity Survey. Evidence is also presented that sample composition may affect the TDS Arousal Avoidance subscale scores which may in turn affect inter-subscale correlations and factor structure.     

Relationship of type A behavior pattern in smokers to carbon monoxide exposure and smoking topography

Stress-related physiological factors have been proposed to mediate the Type A behavior pattern (TABP) and coronary heart disease (CHD). However, collateral behavioral factors, such as the exaggerated consummatory response patterns of Type As, may also be involved. Study 1 examined this hypothesis by comparing exposure to cigarette smoke in 42 graduate and undergraduate student smokers assessed for the TABP. After controlling for smoking rate and Federal Trade Commission cigarette carbon monoxide yield, Type As' alveolar carbon monoxide (COa) levels were higher than Type Bs', and Jenkins Activity Survey scores were correlated with COa. To determine the source of this difference, we measured smoking topography in 10 Type As and 10 Type Bs in Study 2. Type As and Type Bs did not differ in number of puffs taken or puff volume, but Type As' inhalation duration was 70% longer than Type Bs'. These results suggest that consummatory behaviors of Type As may help account for the Type A-CHD relationship for smokers. Due to increased smoke exposure, Type A smokers may also be at greater risk for cancer and lung disease than Type B smokers.