Equality of educational opportunity without the state?

Conclusion This essay took one of the externalities of education, equality of opportunity, and suggested that the more extensive state intervention argued for by the left was not needed for its provision. This was argued by saying that what the left wanted from equality of opportunity was not equality as such, but merely adequate resources for all. An adequate education it was suggested, could be provided without extensive state intervention for the great majority of children. Only for those children who were too poor, or whose parents were too irresponsible, would it be necessary for the state to intervene to ensure the provision of education, and then only to ensure that these children had access to sufficient funds to enable them to share in the educational experiences provided for other children.Several details in this argument need to be worked out in more detail, including the important matter of exactly what an adequate education might comprise. However, if these details could be worked out satisfactorily, the argument could serve to challenge the left's anxieties about moves towards a market in educational provision. The argument suggests that such moves need not lead to the sacrifice of those externalities which the left holds dear.     

Is Suicide Ideation a Surrogate Endpoint for Geriatric Suicide?

The present study explored the validity of treating suicide ideation as a surrogate endpoint that can serve as a proxy for suicide in clinical intervention research with suicidal seniors. Two criteria; that suicide ideation is modulated by the proposed intervention and that modulation of suicide ideation leads to a quantitative reduction in suicide rates, were the focus of this review. A series of literature searches of the PsychINFO and Medline databases were conducted on the terms geriatric, elderly, seniors, suicide, self-destruction, clinical, randomized, trial, treatment, intervention , and ideation . Articles were analyzed if they provided sufficient information to examine whether an intervention effectively led to a reduction in suicide ideation among seniors. Two hundred and eight articles were considered for potential inclusion in this study, with 19 articles meeting final inclusion criteria. The articles reviewed were divided into three broad categories: articles supporting suicide ideation as a surrogate endpoint for geriatric suicide ( n = 6); those not supporting this hypothesis ( n = 1); and those providing insufficient information to test the hypothesis ( n = 12). The present analysis provided modest evidence for suicide ideation as a surrogate endpoint for geriatric suicide, due, in part, to a paucity of randomized controlled trials of treatment interventions for suicidal seniors, thus demonstrating a clear need for research in this area. Implications of utilizing surrogate endpoints in suicide research are discussed.     

Intimates as agents of social support: sources of consolation or despair?

We proposed that people's intimates may insulate them against self-discrepant feedback. Individuals who possessed low or high self-esteem (targets) reported to the laboratory accompanied by persons with whom they were involved in intimate relationships (intimates). Some intimates perceived targets in a manner that was congruent with targets' self-conceptions; others perceived targets in a manner that was incongruent with targets' self-conceptions. Targets received bogus feedback that was discrepant with their self-esteem and interacted with either their intimate or a stranger. Targets then completed a measure of self-esteem. As expected, targets changed their self-ratings in the direction of the discrepant feedback when they interacted with either an incongruent intimate or a stranger but not when they interacted with a congruent intimate. Moreover, congruent intimates were just as effective in insulating low self-esteem targets against positive feedback as they were in insulating high self-esteem individuals against negative feedback. Finally, the more targets discussed the feedback, the less self-rating change they experienced. Implications for social support processes and attempts to cope with traumatic events are discussed.     

The Effect of Participating in Suicide Research: Does Participating in a Research Protocol on Suicide and Psychiatric Symptoms Increase Suicide Ideation and Attempts?

The effect of engaging in an intensive research protocol that inquired extensively about psychiatric and suicide symptoms and exposed participants to a number of images, including suicide-related content was explored. Individuals experiencing a major depressive episode were called at 1 and 3 months after the initial protocol. Participants were asked about changes in suicide ideation and the occurrence of self-harm or suicide attempts following participation. Participants reported experiencing reductions in suicide ideation at the first follow-up and no changes at the second follow-up. No participant reported having engaged in self-harm or having attempted suicide at either follow-up. Results suggest that basic science/nontreatment research can be conducted safely with suicidal participants and in a manner that does not increase suicide symptoms or suicide risk.     

Client Suicide: What Now?

The loss of a client to suicide is a painful personal and professional experience for mental health providers. Whether trainee or experienced professional, the affected clinician often reports feeling overwhelmed and unprepared for the experience of client suicide, together with significant emotional distress and diminished work performance. In this article, we present a brief overview of the literature on the impact of client suicide and ideas for coping with the psychological and professional issues that typically arise. We also provide suggestions for managing the associated practical and administrative tasks, as well as resources for obtaining professional support and guidance in the wake of this tragic event.     

Does attitude acquisition in evaluative conditioning without explicit CS-US memory reflect implicit misattribution of affect?

Research that dissociates different types of processes within a given task using a processing tree approach suggests that attitudes may be acquired through evaluative conditioning in the absence of explicit encoding of CS-US pairings in memory. This research distinguishes explicit memory for the CS-US pairings from CS-liking acquired without encoding of CS-US pairs in explicit memory. It has been suggested that the latter effect may be due to an implicit misattribution process that is assumed to operate when US evocativeness is low. In the present research, the latter assumption was supported neither by two high-powered experiments nor by complementary meta-analytic evidence, whereas evocativeness exerted an influence on explicit memory. This pattern of findings is inconsistent with the view that CS-liking acquired without encoding of CS-US pairs in explicit memory reflects an implicit misattribution process at learning. Hence, the underlying learning process is awaiting further empirical scrutiny.     

Social Perceptions of Termination of Medical Treatment: Suicide or Rational Decision?

In two studies, college students read about a critically ill patient who died after CPR attempts failed, CPR was not attempted pursuant to a "Do-Not-Resuscitate" (DNR) order, he terminated all medical treatment, or he self-administered a lethal injection. Death resulting from treatment termination was perceived as significantly more unconventional than were death by CPR failure or DNR order. Ending treatment and lethal injection were perceived as equivalent acts of suicide, and resulted in the patient's being seen as less rational and less capable of making health care decisions. Timing of the patient's decisions regarding treatment, as indicated by the presence or absence of Living Will information, did not alter these perceptions. Results are discussed in light of opposing hypotheses regarding views of "naive" social perceivers toward actions with identical outcomes: that acts of commission are perceived as causal and rated more negatively than acts of omission (Spranca, Minsk, & Baron, 1991), and that acts seen as abnormal are attributed greater causal impact (Hilton & Slugoski, 1986).     

Suicide and Firearm Means Restriction: Can Training Make a Difference?

Along with physician education in depression recognition and treatment, restricting lethal methods is an effective suicide prevention strategy. The present study surveyed a random sample (N = 697) of Ohio licensed social workers regarding client firearm assessment and safety counseling. Analyses sought to determine what independent factors would predict the probability that a social worker would hold positive attitudes regarding firearm risk assessment and counseling. Findings indicated that prior training and reporting from an urban area significantly increased the odds (p < .05) of registering more positive attitudes toward firearm assessment and safety counseling by 91.1% and 44.7%, respectively. Training mental health professionals in firearm assessment and safety counseling is an important aspect in addressing the reduction of suicide by this means.     

Implicit and explicit evaluations of a mass media physical activity campaign: Does everything get better?

The purpose of this research was to evaluate a population level mass media campaign using implicit (i.e., automatic) and explicit (i.e., non-automatic) measures of evaluations and to determine if discrepant or summed evaluations were associated with endorsing campaign objectives: that physical activity can improve relationship-related, mind-related, or body-related outcomes. Participants (N = 1600) completed an online survey which included a single-category implicit association task that measured more automatic or implicit evaluative responses of images from the campaign. The survey also included questions assessing prompted awareness of the campaign, explicitly measured evaluations of the advertisements, and evaluations of whether participating in physical activity makes one’s relationships, mind, or body better. Results showed participants who rated the advertisements as more appealing exhibited more positive implicit evaluations of the campaign. Evaluating the ads as offensive was negatively related to explicit evaluations of whether physical activity makes relationships, mind, or body better; past behaviour and sum and discrepancy scores were positively related to endorsing relationship, mind, and body outcomes. By including implicit evaluation of a playful and creative campaign designed to influence perceptions of what physical activity can make better, this research highlighted that campaign creators should carefully consider what to include. Discrepant evaluations may indicate benefits that could be highlighted because evaluation of them is more amenable to change. Based on current findings, one possible focus of such campaigns may be the relationship-related benefits of PA.     

Meriwether Lewis: Was it Suicide?

Even 200 years following the conclusion of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, questions remain about whether Meriwether Lewis' death was a suicide. The purpose of this article is to consider this issue by examining historical evidence from a psychological perspective. A risk factor model for suicide assessment (Sanchez, 2001) is employed to evaluate the nature of Lewis' historical, personal, psychosocial environmental, and clinical risk factors as well as protective factors. The authors conclude that though there is some evidence to support a theory of murder, Lewis was at a high suicide risk at the time of his death, and that the preponderance of the evidence indicates that he died by his own hand.     

The state of boredom: Frustrating or depressing?

Boredom is a prevalent emotion with potential negative consequences. Previous research has associated boredom with outcomes indicating both high and low levels of arousal and activation. In the present study we propose that the situational context is an important factor that may determine whether boredom relates to high versus low arousal/activation reactions. In a correlational (N?=?443) and an experimental study (N?=?120) we focused on the situational factor (perceived) task autonomy, and examined whether it explains when boredom is associated with high versus low arousal affective reactions (i.e., frustration versus depressed affect). Results of both studies indicate that when task autonomy is low, state boredom relates to more frustration than when task autonomy is high. In contrast, some support (i.e., Study 1 only) was found suggesting that when task autonomy is high, state boredom relates to more depressed affect than when task autonomy is low. These findings imply that careful attention is needed for tasks that are relatively boring. In order to reduce frustration caused by such tasks, substantial autonomy should be provided, while monitoring that this does not result in increased depressed affect.     

Suicide Terrorists: Are They Suicidal?

Are suicide terrorists suicidal? A review of the worldwide literature on suicide terrorism uncovered five published empirical studies describing data collected from potential suicide terrorists or the surviving friends and families of deceased terrorists. The many discrepancies uncovered between suicide terrorists and other suicides on key factors known to underpin suicidality, suggest that such terrorists are not truly suicidal and should not be viewed as a subgroup of the general suicide population. Nonetheless, methods developed by suicidologists, such as the psychological autopsy, will help increase our understanding of the individual and group factors that underpin suicide terrorism.     

Sexual intimacies with clients after termination: should a prohibition be explicit?

The Revisions Task Force of the Ethics Committee of the American Psychological Association (APA) has proposed that prohibition of sexual intimacies with clients after termination of therapeutic relationships be made an explicit part of the new code. This decision was based on much careful deliberation and input from various individuals and groups. This article supports the proposed change and provides a rationale based on emerging theoretical positions and research findings regarding risks to clients, risks to professionals, and risks to the various mental health professions. The revision would read, "Psychologists do not engage in sexual intimacies with current or former psychotherapy clients."     

‘We despair’: Examining the role of political despair for collective action and well-being

Anecdotally, people often report feeling despair about the political status quo. We conceptualise these feelings as political despair. But what is political despair, and what are its effects? We adapt intergroup emotion theory to analyse political despair in the context of racial inequality (Studies 1 and 2) and climate change (Study 3). Three cross-sectional studies (total N = 866) tested the measurement of political despair (relative to anger and hope), its pattern of appraisals and outcomes for conventional and radical actions along with well-being (stress, burnout and optimism). Structural equation modelling differentiated political despair from anger and hope and found that despair is associated with evaluations that the situation is both illegitimate and intractable (unchangeable). Moreover, political despair consistently had a negative relationship with well-being and positive relationships with conventional and radical collective action. The results suggest political despair is negatively associated with well-being and impact people's engagement in action for social change.     

What do Suicide Survivors Tell Us They Need? Results of a Pilot Study

Few studies have examined the natural coping efforts used by suicide survivors, or have identified specific problems and needs survivors experience following the death of a significant other by suicide. In the present study, we used a newly developed needs assessment survey to examine four areas of natural coping efforts: practical, psychological, and social difficulties; formal and informal sources of support; resources utilized in healing; and barriers to finding support since the loss. Sixty-three adult survivors of suicide were recruited from suicide survivor conferences and support groups. Results indicate that participants experienced high levels of psychological distress since the suicide, including elevated symptoms of depression, guilt, anxiety, and trauma. Participants experienced substantial difficulties in the social arena (e.g., talking with others about the suicide). The majority of the sample viewed professional help as beneficial; although many informal sources of support were also valued (e.g., one-to-one contact with other survivors). Depression and a lack of information about where to find help served as barriers to help-seeking behaviors for our participants. Participants who reported higher levels of functional impairment were more likely to report higher levels of psychological distress, social isolation, and barriers to seeking help. Future research with a longitudinal and more inclusive sample is needed to build on these preliminary findings and to provide a solid foundation for evidenced-based interventions with survivors.     

Older Adults: The Next Suicide Epidemic?

Suicide rates historically and currently are highest by age among those over the age of 65. Predictions of markedly higher rates for future older adults have been advanced. Possible alternative factors that might produce lower risk among future elderly Americans are presented and it is argued that future trends are uncertain. Predictions of elderly suicide are made based on an assumption of stable rather than changing rates. Constant rates produce estimates of more than twice the current number of suicides and a proportionate increase in the number of suicides from one in five for the 1980s to one in three by the year 2030. The elderly are and likely will be a group with high suicide risk. Immediate efforts to lower elderly suicide risk and avert high future rates are recommended.     

Neuronal representations of cognitive state: reward or attention?

The effects of spatial or featural attention on the activity of neurons have been studied in many experiments that have used a variety of neurophysiological approaches. Other experiments have examined how expectations about reward are represented in neuronal activity in various brain regions. Although attention and reward are distinct concepts, I argue here that many neurophysiological experiments on attention and reward do not permit a clean dissociation between the two. This problem arises in part because reward contingencies are the only parameter manipulated in any of these experiments. I describe how attention and reward expectations have been confounded, giving rise to uncertainty about how signals related to attention and reward are distributed in the brain.