Behavioral coaching in the development of skills in football, gymnastics, and tennis

A review of the literature indicates that methods of skill acquisition based on the operant paradigm have been scientifically validated with many motor behaviors. However, these procedures have been limited to the use of positive reinforcement for correct performance when applied to the acquisition of complex sports skills in natural settings. To find complementary procedures to enhance skill acquisition, a coaching method involving several behavioral techniques was developed that focused on remediation of errors. This coaching method combined the following components: (1) systematic use of verbal instructions and feedback, (2) positive and negative reinforcement, (3) positive practice, and (4) time out. Three sports, football, gymnastics, and tennis, were selected to determine the effectiveness and generality of this behavioral coaching method. A total of 23 male and female subjects, ranging in age from 11 to 35, was included in this study. Baseline data were first collected for each sport under standard coaching conditions. Next, the behavioral coaching method was evaluated depending on the sport in either a multiple baseline or a reversal design. The behavioral dimensions selected were blocking in football; backward walkovers, front hand springs, and reverse kips in gymnastics; and the forehand, backhand, and serve in tennis. Behavioral coaching was immediately effective in increasing the correct execution of complex skills in all three sports. Gains of up to 10 times the baseline performance were achieved in each sport. In football, behavioral coaching resulted in an increase in correct blocking performance from a baseline average of 5% to 51.3%. Gymnasts' performances increased from baseline averages of 2.7% to 52.6% across the three skills. In tennis, standard coaching produced an average of 6% correct performance which increased dramatically under behavioral coaching to 57% across the three strokes. The success of the behavioral coaching package used here suggests that a technology of behavior may offer additional and complementary strategies to the acquisition of motor skills in the natural environment.     

Stimulating performance: A scoping review on transcranial electrical stimulation effects on olympic sports

Transcranial electrical stimulation (tES) is widely used to explore the role of various cortical regions involved in a multitude of motor and cognitive processes. Recently, tES has been discussed as being able to potentially enhance performance in sports and even been suggested as a potential way of boosting performance in competitions. In this scoping review, we systematically investigate the literature on tES-induced performance modulations on Olympic sports. The aim is to create a critical overview of the emerging field of tES-enhanced sports performance. Further, methodological approaches, research desiderata, and potential directions for future research will be identified. The final dataset shows a large variation in methodology and a lack of research into the area. Further, partially sub-optimal choices in study design, methodology, and lacking consistency in reporting procedures may impede valid conclusions and obscured the effects of tES on Olympic sports. Consequently, we outline future directions and areas to improve research.     

Flow in youth sport,physical activity,and physical education: A systematic review

Flow in sport, physical activity, and physical education can have widespread benefits for youth participants. The aim of this study was to systematically review, synthesise, and appraise literature on flow in youth sport, physical activity, and physical education. More specifically, the review explored the: methods used to study flow; conceptualisation of flow; antecedents associated with flow; interventions and mechanisms to facilitate flow states; and outcomes associated with flow. Electronic database and manual searches in September 2020 yielded 2,292 potential papers. Overall, 39 studies with 17,123 youths published over 36 years (1984–2020) satisfied the eligibility criteria and were included in the review. As the first systematic review of flow in physical activity contexts specifically in youth-aged participants, the synthesis identified several issues with the measurement and conceptualisation of flow. While evidence has accumulated on antecedents and outcomes of flow in youth sport, physical activity, and physical education, the reliance on cross-sectional designs prevents the inference of causality. Interventions designed to facilitate more frequent or intense flow experiences have been relatively unsuccessful, thus suggesting that further research is required to explain the occurrence of flow and to develop interventions that reliably induce flow states in youths. Overall, the review highlights a need for higher quality research to make meaningful progress in understanding of the flow experience in youth sport, physical activity, and physical education. Recommendations for future research that could help to advance understanding include: experimental studies; evidence-based flow interventions; and qualitative methods, such as event-focused interviews.     

Studies using single-subject designs in sport psychology: 30 years of research

A prominent feature of behavior-analytic research has been the use of single-subject designs. We examined sport psychology journals and behavioral journals published during the past 30 years, and located 40 studies using single-subject designs to assess interventions for enhancing the performance of athletes and coaches. In this paper, we summarize that body of research, discuss its strengths and limitations, and identify areas for future research.     

Variable effects of a behavioral treatment package on the performance of inline roller speed skaters

We investigated the effects of a treatment package on the performance of correct relay tags with 4 inline speed skaters. The treatment package included verbal praise following correct tags, visual feedback of performance data, and instruction for improving performance. Initial gains in the frequency of correct tags were not maintained at 6-month follow-up when baselines were reestablished. Performance on the second intervention phase for the 3 original subjects was variable and differed from the initial phase, whereas the original findings were replicated in the 4th subject. Possible reasons for this variability and implications for future research and behavioral sport interventions are considered.     

Integrating sport psychology and sports medicine in research: The dilemmas

Abstract

The recent acceleration of interest in conducting sport psychology research within sports medicine settings has prompted an introspection on the stringency of sport injury-focused research protocols and methodology. Much of the literature relating to the psychology of sport injury is anecdotal, comprised of conjecture, or is an extrapolation from allied psychological study. In addition, retrospective studies, involving the recall of an unpleasant event (i.e., sport injury) proliferate the literature. Quality research that integrates sport psychology and sports medicine presents a unique challenge because of the multifactorial nature of sport injury and the necessity for sound interpretation of research outcomes relative to the nature of psychology. sport, and injury. Confounding and complicating aspects of this integrated research include definition of injury variables, timing of data collection. evaluation of pain. and the physiological sequelae of injury. Research and methodological issues relating to sport psychology and sport injury are discussed.     

Pediatric Feeding Disorders: A Quantitative Synthesis of Treatment Outcomes

A systematic review of the literature regarding treatment of pediatric feeding disorders was conducted. Articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals (1970–2010) evaluating treatment of severe food refusal or selectivity were identified. Studies demonstrating strict experimental control were selected and analyzed. Forty-eight single-case research studies reporting outcomes for 96 participants were included in the review. Most children presented with complex medical and developmental concerns and were treated at multidisciplinary feeding disorders programs. All studies involved behavioral intervention; no well-controlled studies evaluating feeding interventions by other theoretical perspectives or clinical disciplines met inclusion criteria. Results indicated that behavioral intervention was associated with significant improvements in feeding behavior. Clinical and research implications are discussed, including movement toward the identification of key behavioral antecedents and consequences that promote appropriate mealtime performance, as well as the need to better document outcomes beyond behavioral improvements, such as changes in anthropometric parameters, generalization of treatment gains to caregivers, and improvements in nutritional status.     

Gaining perspectives: A scoping review of research assessing depressive symptoms in athletes

The aim of this review was to 1) describe methodological characteristics of the research that has assessed depressive symptoms in athletes, and 2) to map the variables that have been tested in relation to these symptoms. A review framework proposed by Arksey and O’Malley (2005) was utilized, and of 6983 records screened, 157 studies were included. Most studies were cross-sectional, with samples including current male and female athletes from multiple sports and levels. Non-athlete comparison groups frequently consisted of student samples. Twenty-eight different depression scales were utilized, of which CES-D, BDI, BDI-II, and the PHQ-9 were most common. The most commonly tested variables in relation to depressive symptoms were identified as proximal (micro- and meso-level) sport-specific (e.g. type of sport) (36.4%) and generic (e.g. sex) (31.5%) factors. Within-individual vulnerabilities (e.g. neurocognitive performance) accounted for 17.2%, while comorbid disorders accounted for 9.3%, and macro-level variables (e.g. ethnicity) for 5% of all observations. Longitudinal studies within specific sports are needed to understand the relative influence of sport-specific and generic factors on depressive symptoms in athletes. Few studies explored sociocultural or macro-level factors, and research concerning within-individual vulnerability is fragmented and needs to be further explored to inform individual-level support and prevention initiatives.     

Observation as a method to enhance collective efficacy: An integrative review

ObjectivesThis review provides an integrative argument for the use of observation as an intervention to manipulate individual collective efficacy beliefs in sports teams.DesignAn exploration of the conceptual and empirical evidence underpinning observation-based interventions for increasing collective efficacy.MethodA presentation of reflections on the following. First, we reflect on existing techniques used to increase self- and collective efficacy beliefs. Second, we consider collective efficacy in the context of observational learning and the various modeling techniques employed in the sports and motor performance literature. Third, we highlight relevant literature from neuroscience, outlining the analogous neural pathways evident for social cognition (i.e., collective efficacy) and observation.ResultsThis review presents a case for the use of observation interventions to manipulate collective efficacy, drawing upon social psychological frameworks of human behavior, the observation-based literature, and contemporary understanding of brain and behavior.ConclusionsObservation-based interventions are suited for collective efficacy manipulation in sport. There is a need to advance understanding of this relationship in order to maximize improvements in collective efficacy across group contexts.     

Are expert athletes ‘expert’ in the cognitive laboratory? A meta‐analytic review of cognition and sport expertise

Recent literature has demonstrated the usefulness of fitness and computer‐based cognitive training as a means to enhance cognition and brain function. However, it is unclear whether the combination of fitness and cognitive training that results from years of extensive sport training also results in superior performance on tests of cognitive processes. In this study we examine, in a quantitative meta‐analysis (k = 20), the relationship between expertise in sports and laboratory‐based measures of cognition. We found that athletes performed better on measures of processing speed and a category of varied attentional paradigms, and athletes from interceptive sport types and males showed the largest effects. Based on our results, more research should be done with higher‐level cognitive tasks, such as tasks of executive function and more varied sub‐domains of visual attention. Furthermore, future studies should incorporate more female athletes and use a diverse range of sport types and levels of expertise. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The effect of behavioral skills training on shot performance in field hockey

Behavior analysis procedures have been used to improve sports performance and enhance player safety across a wide variety of sports. The current study evaluated the effects of behavioral skills training on three common field hockey shots, a slap shot, drive, and sweep for young field hockey players. The procedures were evaluated in a multiple baseline across behaviors for three players. Results showed increases in each type of shot once intervention was implemented.     

Fostering Self-Determination and Resilience Through Sports Counselling: Psychosocial Development of Youth in Botswana

Sports can promote pro-social behaviors and confidence in physical abilities among participants. We conducted an extensive review of the literature on the ways in which youth in Southern African countries, severely affected by the HIV/AIDS pandemic and other hardships may benefit from acquiring the pro-social skills often associated with athletics. This article reviews the current situation of sports in Botswana and offers recommendations for a culturally appropriate developmental sports counselling program in that country. The authors present arguments that support the development of psychosocial skills, self-determination, and resilience among Batswana Youth through sports counselling interventions.     

Investigating Elite End-of-Athletic-Career Transition: A Systematic Review

This article presents a systematic review of the literature investigating factors that contribute to a successful end-of-career transition among elite athletes. The systematic review included 10 studies that focused on elite athlete retirement that in part measured positive outcomes, which fall under the flourishing construct. Results indicated that although there has been an abundance of research examining multiple effects of transition out of sport among elite athletes, there appears to be no current literature explicitly examining flourishing within this elite population. The results of the review have practical implications for sport psychology practitioners who are aiming to facilitate a successful transition for elite athletes through their end-of-athletic-career transition. The findings from the systematic review are discussed, and the article provides recommendations for future research and for current applied practice.     

A systematic review of interventions to address workplace bias: What we know,what we don't,and lessons learned

Despite the extensive literature about the pervasiveness and impact of microaggressions in the workplace, little is known about what specific workplace interventions have been adopted to mitigate them and, for those adopted, whether the efforts are effective. Given the nature of this special journal issue, we originally sought to answer this call by focusing solely on workplace interventions targeting microaggressions. However, it became clear that the relative paucity of such interventions (as documented in the literature) necessitated that we cast a broader net. We therefore present the results of a systematic review of studies that evaluate the effectiveness of workplace interventions focused on subtle bias and/or its behavioral manifestations. The review identified only six papers that met the inclusion criteria of: 1) reporting a real-world workplace intervention with a goal of reducing subtle bias and/or behavioral manifestations and 2) including a systematic evaluation of attitude, awareness, and/or behavioral change. Multiple themes across the identified studies are summarized. The discussion addresses the dearth of well-documented interventions and examines lessons learned from existing interventions to inform the development of future training focused on microaggressions in order to contribute to long-lasting change.     

A Review of Single-Case Research in Sport Psychology 1997–2012: Research Trends and Future Directions

Single-case research methods are an important facet of applied sport psychology because they provide a framework for researchers and practitioners to outline intervention effects across time with individuals or groups. This paper reviews the research published since Hrycaiko and Martin's (1996) milestone overview of single-case research in sport psychology. Specifically, we examined the literature between 1997 and 2012 and located 66 studies that met our inclusion criteria of assessing interventions in sport psychology. The review summarizes the body of research, outlines trends, considers the limitations of the extant literature, and identifies areas that require further investigation for future single-case research.     

The effectiveness of psychological skills training and behavioral interventions in sport using single-case designs: A meta regression analysis of the peer-reviewed studies

We used a novel meta regression analysis approach to examine the effectiveness of psychological skills training and behavioral interventions in sport assessed using single-case experimental designs (SCEDs). One hundred and twenty-one papers met the inclusion criteria applied to eight database searches and key sport psychology journals. Seventy-one studies reported sufficient detail for effect sizes to be calculated for the effects of psychological skills training on psychological, behavioral, and performance variables. The unconditional mean effect size for weighted (Δ = 2.40) and unweighted (Δ = 2.83) models suggested large improvements in psychological, behavioral, and performance outcomes associated with implementing cognitive-behavioral psychological skills training and behavioral interventions with a SCED. However, meta-regression analysis revealed important heterogeneities and sources of bias within this literature. First, studies using a group-based approach reported lower effect sizes compared to studies using single-case approaches. Second, the single-case studies, (over 90 per cent the effect sizes), revealed upwardly biased effect sizes arising from: (i) positive publication bias such that studies using lower numbers of baseline observations reported larger effects, while studies using larger numbers of baseline observations reported smaller – but still substantial – effects; (ii) not adopting a multiple baseline design; and (iii) not establishing procedural reliability. We recommend that future researchers using SCED’s should consider these methodological issues.     

Les effets de la mindfulness et des interventions psychologiques basées sur la pleine conscience

A growing interest in the human sciences has emerged in the last twenty years with respect to mindfulness. Until recently, there were confusions of the concept of mindfulness with the meditation practices. According to Brown and Ryan (2003), mindfulness is an innate tendency of all individuals, present at different degrees, that demonstrated both conceptual and empirical utility in the last years, in studies on psychological well-being, physical health, work and sport performance, and the field of the interpersonal relationships. The object of this article is to present this psychological concept as well as the results of the studies relating to the effects of this attribute on well-being and on emotional and behavioural regulation. In the second part of the article, we present a review of the literature of the principal therapeutic interventions based on mindfulness. Several meta-analyses show moderate to important effect sizes of this type of approach on the symptoms of depression and anxiety (Hofmann et al., 2010). Lastly, we propose orientations for future research on mindfulness and on related interventions.