Conceptual role semantics and the explanatory role of content

Conclusion I've tried to argue that there is more to representational content than CRS can acknowledge. CRS is attractive, I think, because of its rejection of atomism, and because it is a plausible theory of targets. But those are philosopher's concerns. Someone interested in building a person needs to understand representation, because, as AI researchers have urged for some time, good representation is the secret of good performance. I have just gestured in the direction I think a viable theory of representation must take. I hope, however, to have created some advance sympathy for the gesture by distinguishing the problem of representation from the problem of targets on the one hand, and from the problem truth-conditions for the attitudes on the other.     

Gender role and personality disorders

Many researchers have hypothesized relationships between personality disorders and gender role (i.e., masculinity and femininity). However, research has not addressed if people who are masculine or feminine more often meet the criteria for personality disorders. The present study examined whether college students (N = 665, 60% women) higher in masculinity or femininity more often exhibited features of the 10 DSM-IV personality disorders. Feminine men exhibited more features of all the personality disorders except antisocial. Dependent traits were associated with higher femininity and lower masculinity. Antisocial traits were associated with masculinity. Both men and women who typically behaved consistent with their gender had more narcissistic and histrionic features, whereas participants who typically behaved unlike their gender had more features of the Cluster A personality disorders.     

Gender role and person-perception accuracy

The relationship between gender role and person-perception accuracy was examined in this research. Young adults who were masculine, feminine, androgynous, or undifferentiated in their gender role interacted with a child, and with a peer, in role-playing situations that focused on parenting and marital behaviors. The accuracy with which subjects predicted the child's perception of them, and the accuracy with which they perceived the interpersonal traits of the peer, were assessed. The results indicated that androgynous subjects were clearly superior in predicting the child's perceptions of them, but were no better than the other gender-role groups in terms of peer perceptions. Rather, females were more accurate than males in perceptions of gender-related traits. Implications of this research for the relationship between gender role and parenting behavior, and directions for future research that examines person-perception accuracy, are discussed.     

Nicknames and sex role stereotypes

Since nicknames are a very fluid component of language, they become a useful tool for revealing current sex role stereotypes. A study of 380 nicknames collected from 175 young women and men ages 14–19 shows that males assign most nicknames and males receive more names based on surnames; also, connotations of strength, largeness, hardness, and maturity are typical of male nicknames. For female nicknames, physical attributes are more important, and connotations are typically of beauty, pleasantness, kindness, and goodness. Nicknames do not reflect much difference in activity, however, a quality that in earlier studies is associated predominantly with males.     

Sex role and dysphoric mood

This study was designed to examine the relation of sex-role type to dysphoric mood and to the manipulation of dysphoric affect. Initially, subjects completed a variety of measures yielding indices of dysphoria, anxiety, and hostility. Androgynous persons reported the least dysphoria, anxiety, and hostility. Subjects from the original sample who volunteered for the second part of the study were randomly assigned to the neutral or depression conditions of the Velten Mood Induction Procedure. Androgynous types again reported the least anxiety and dysphoria in the neutral type situation; however, when exposed to depressive stimuli, they showed the greatest increase in dysphoria. Masculine-typed persons showed virtually no change in mood. These results lend strong support to the association of sex-typing with depression in that the sex types were differentially susceptible to dysphoric mood. However, the results are contrary to the only other reported study of sex role and depression which successfully manipulated affect. Differences in methodology (learned helplessness versus mood induction) and the fact that the previous study forced subjects to lose control and fail may account for the differing results.     

A meta-analysis and conceptual critique of research on role ambiguity and role conflict in work settings

Although role ambiguity and role conflict have been studied extensively in the organizational sciences, there remain numerous empirical discrepancies among the reported research results. Consequently, disagreement exists as to what can be concluded about the role ambiguity and role conflict research. Coupled with this empirical impasse has been a persistent and relatively singular approach to conceptually studying role ambiguity and role conflict. In response to this empirical and conceptual situation, a meta-analysis and a conceptual reevaluation of the role ambiguity and role conflict research were performed. Using the Hunter, Schmidt, and Jackson (1982, Meta-analysis: Cumulating research findings across studies, Beverly Hills, CA: Sage) meta-analysis procedures, this study analyzed 29 correlates of role ambiguity and role conflict. These correlates include ten organizational context variables, five individual characteristics, ten affective reactions, and four behavioral reactions. Meta-analysis procedures were used to measure the strength and consistency of the relationship found between each of the 29 correlates and role ambiguity and role conflict. Meta-analysis was also used to determine where moderator variables should play a critical part in future role ambiguity and role conflict research. Based on the results of the meta-analysis, several empirical summaries and conclusions are presented. Along with these, several conceptual observations and reconceptualizing suggestions are offered. It is concluded that while a great deal is known about role ambiguity and role conflict in the organizational sciences much remains to be learned.     

Stepparent role strain and psychological distress

In the last few decades, Spain has witnessed a slow but progressive change in predominant family models. The purpose of this work is to advance in our knowledge of stepfamilies through the perspectives and experiences of two of their members, the stepfather and the stepmother. The theoretical model examined in this investigation proposes that stepparents' role strain could have negative effects on their psychological wellbeing. It also proposes that a satisfactory couple relation could mediate in the relation between role strain and psychological wellbeing. In this study, participants were 116 stepparents who had been living for at least one year with their partner. The most relevant results showed the adequacy of the proposed model and the higher vulnerability of stepmothers in these family structures.     

The role of gender and gender role similarity in readers' identification with story characters

This study tested the hypothesis that adult readers would identify with story characters who display a similar gender role orientation. Male and female readers rated their identification with male and female characters who acted in either a masculine or feminine manner in short story vignettes. The primary finding was an interaction between gender role of reader and gender role behavior of character: as predicted, androgynous and undifferentiated readers identified equally with both masculine and feminine characters, masculine readers identified more strongly with masculine characters than feminine characters, and feminine readers identified more strongly with feminine characters than masculine characters. Further, androgynous readers identified somewhat more strongly with both types of characters than undifferentiated readers. However, the predicted effect of gender similarity between reader and character did not exert a strong influence on the identification process. In addition, feminine subjects reported greater identification across all four stories than masculine and undifferentiated subjects. Finally, of three questionnaire measures of empathy tested, only Davis's (1983) Interpersonal Reactivity Index (Empathic Concern subscale) significantly predicted general level of identification; as expected, these scores were significantly correlated with femininity gender role scores.     

The role of masculine gender role stress in expressivity and social support network factors

This study examined the relationship of masculine gender roles stress (MGRS) to nonverbal and verbal expressivity in positive and negative emotional dyadic role-play situations. The relationship between masculine gender role stress and emotion-focused social support was also explored. Male subjects were differentiated by their appraisals of gender-related situations as stressful; they were rated on nonverbal facial expression and global verbal expressivity in positive and negative emotional situations. It was demonstrated that (a) all subjects were less nonverbally and verbally expressive in situations requiring positive emotional expression than in situations requiring negative emotional expression; (b) high MGRS subjects were less nonverbally expressive than low MGRS participants in both types of situations; (c) however, the high MGRS subjects were less verbally expressive than the lows only under emotionally positive conditions; and (d) while high MGRS subjects did not have smaller social support networks than the lows, they reported less satisfaction with their social support systems. Results were discussed in terms of gender roles and stress-buffering implications.     

Change in role perception, role conflict, and psychological health of working mothers

A model of the interrelationship among Change in Role Perception, Role Conflict, and Psychological Health of working mothers is introduced. The model posits that Change in Role Perception after the birth of children influences Psychological Health directly or indirectly through Role Conflict. The model was tested with a sample of 192 employed mothers (aged 26-45 years) with at least one child under 11 years of age and who lived in either Melbourne or Canberra, Australia. As expected, scores on Role Conflict predicted all four measures of Psychological Health (Anxiety, Self-esteem, Uptight, and Worn Out). Change in scores on Role Perception predicted Self-esteem and Worn Out. Geographic location predicted scores for Uptight and Worn Out and Occupational Type predicted scores for Worn Out, perhaps due to perceived social support. There are theoretical reasons for maintaining the model's structure. Refinement of methodology, measurement of Change in Role Perception, and possible adoption of a longitudinal approach is recommended. It is concluded that measuring experienced role conflict and change in role perception should be taken into account in any consideration of women's psychological health.     

Sport competition anxiety and sex role

Competitive trait anxiety scores, measured by the Sport Competition Anxiety Test, were obtained from subjects of both sexes. Subjects also were classified into one of five sex-role endorsement categories according to scores on the Bem Sex Role Inventory. It was predicted that greater endorsement of a feminine sex role, regardless of sex of the subject, would be associated with high levels of competitive trait anxiety. Analysis of variance showed no significant difference for sex of subject, but significant differences for both sex-role endorsement and sex × endorsement interaction. Both differences were attributed to male subjects' responses. Generally, masculine males were less anxious than other subjects, while feminine males were more anxious. There were no significant differences among female groups.The author expresses thanks to Elizabeth Y. Poland and Robert E. Hill, Jr., for their numerous helpful comments during the preparation of this article.     

Current sex role conceptions and conflict

Beliefs about role sharing or sex typing in occupations, positions of authority, the care of infants and children, housekeeping chores, responsibility for the economic support of the family, and the handling of family finances were investigated for 1,048 men and women residing in New York City. Beliefs about goals of the women's movement, about equality of the sexes, and about the elimination of sex typing in the socialization of children were also investigated. Questionnaires were distributed in the spring and fall of 1973 at several business firms, university campuses, shopping centers in black and white working class districts, and at a professional building. All of the independent variables — gender, age, marital status, occupation, educational level, religion, and ethnicity — were significantly related to beliefs about sex roles. Gender was the overriding independent variable, however. Significant differences in beliefs between the sexes persisted within the categories established by the other independent variables. For the total sample, discrepancies in the beliefs of men and women ranged from very highly significant to significant on almost all items on the questionnaire, although a majority of both sexes opted for more equality, less sex typing, and more role sharing. Role conflict, insofar as this stems from a lack of mutuality in role definitions and expectations, would appear to be a likely experience of many of the men and women interviewed. The role conflict model is a valuable tool that should be applied to actual interactional settings, involving men and women, in future research.