Finger counting habit and spatial–numerical association in children and adults

Sensory-motor experiences are known to build up concrete and abstract concepts during the lifespan. The present study aimed to test how finger counting habits (right-hand vs. left-hand starters) could influence the spatial–numerical representation in number-to-position (explicit) and digit-string bisection (implicit) tasks. The subjects were Italian primary school children (N = 184, from the first to the fifth year) and adults (N = 42). No general preference for right- or left-starting in the finger counting was found. In the explicit task, right- or left-starting did not affect performance. In the implicit task, the right-hand starters shifted from the left to the right space when bisecting small and large numbers respectively, while the left-hand starters shifted from the right to the left space with higher leftward bias for large numbers. The finger configuration in Italian children and adults influences the spatial–numerical representation, but only when implicit number processing is required by the task.     

Intra- and inter-subject variation in lower limb coordination during countermovement jumps in children and adults

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the coordination pattern and coordination variability (intra-subject and inter-subject) in children and adults during vertical countermovement jumps. Ten children (mean age: 11.5 ± 1.8 years) and ten adults (mean age: 26.1 ± 4.9 years) participated in the experiment. Lower body 3D-kinematics and kinetics from both legs were obtained during 9 vertical jumps of each subject. Coordination pattern and coordination variability of intra-limb and inter-limb coupling were established by modified vector coding and continuous relative phase. The adult group jumped higher and with less performance variability compared to the children. Group differences were mainly observed in the right–left foot coupling. The intra-subject coordination variability was higher in coupling of proximal segments in children compared to adults. No group differences were observed in inter-subject variability. Based on these results, it was concluded that the same movement solutions were available to both age groups, but the children were less able to consistently utilize the individually chosen coordination pattern. Thus, this ability appears to be developed through normal ontogenesis.     

How to rapidly construct a spatial–numerical representation in preliterate children (at least temporarily)

Spatial processing of numbers has emerged as one of the basic properties of humans’ mathematical thinking. However, how and when number–space relations develop is a highly contested issue. One dominant view has been that a link between numbers and left/right spatial directions is constructed based on directional experience associated with reading and writing. However, some early forms of a number–space link have been observed in preschool children who cannot yet read and write. As literacy experience is evidently not necessary for number–space effects, we are searching for other potential sources of this association. Here we propose and test a hypothesis that the number–space link can be quickly constructed in preschool children's cognition on the basis of spatially oriented visuo‐motor activities. We trained 3‐ and 4‐year‐old children with a non‐numerical spatial movement task (left‐to‐right or right‐to‐left), where via touch screen children had to move a frog across a pond. After the training, children had to perform a numerosity comparison task. After left‐to‐right training, we observed a SNARC‐like effect (reactions to smaller numbers were faster on the left side, and reactions to larger numbers on the right side), and after right‐to‐left training a reverse effect. These results are the first to show a causal link between visuo‐motor activities and number–space associations in children before they learn to read and write. We argue that simple activities, such as manual games, dominant in a given society, might shape number–space associations in children in a way similar to lifelong reading training.     

To infinity and beyond: Children generalize the successor function to all possible numbers years after learning to count

Recent accounts of number word learning posit that when children learn to accurately count sets (i.e., become “cardinal principle” or “CP” knowers), they have a conceptual insight about how the count list implements the successor function – i.e., that every natural number n has a successor defined as n + 1 (Carey, 2004, 2009; Sarnecka & Carey, 2008). However, recent studies suggest that knowledge of the successor function emerges sometime after children learn to accurately count, though it remains unknown when this occurs, and what causes this developmental transition. We tested knowledge of the successor function in 100 children aged 4 through 7 and asked how age and counting ability are related to: (1) children’s ability to infer the successors of all numbers in their count list and (2) knowledge that all numbers have a successor. We found that children do not acquire these two facets of the successor function until they are about 5½ or 6 years of age – roughly 2 years after they learn to accurately count sets and become CP-knowers. These findings show that acquisition of the successor function is highly protracted, providing the strongest evidence yet that it cannot drive the cardinal principle induction. We suggest that counting experience, as well as knowledge of recursive counting structures, may instead drive the learning of the successor function.     

Neuromagnetic correlates of intra- and extra-dimensional set-shifting

Set-shifting is essential to cognitive flexibility and relies on frontal lobe function. Previous studies have mostly focused on feedback processes following shifting rather than set-shifting itself. We designed an MEG paradigm without feedback to directly investigate the neural correlates of set-shifting. Adults (n = 16) matched one of two coloured images with a third stimulus, the target, by either the colour or shape dimension of the target. Half of the shift trials involved colour-to-colour or shape-to-shape (intra-dimensional: ID) shifting and the other half involved colour-to-shape or shape-to-colour (extra-dimensional: ED) shifting. MEG was continuously recorded on a 151 channel CTF system. We used beamforming to analyze responses to the first (shift) and the third (repeat) trials in each set. These trials were contrasted separately for ID and ED sets. Shift versus repeat trials showed larger MEG activations for intra-dimensional shifting in the right inferior frontal gyrus (BA 47), left medial frontal gyrus (BA 10) and right superior frontal gyrus (BA 9) as early as 100 ms, and in left middle frontal gyrus (BA 11) between 250–500 ms. Activations related to extra-dimensional shifting were detected in left inferior frontal gyrus (BA 44), left middle frontal gyrus (BA 11), and right middle frontal gyrus (BA 46) between 100 ms and 350 ms, followed by superior frontal gyrus (BA 8/BA 10) between 250–500 ms. Intra-dimensional and extra-dimensional shifting also activated bilateral and right parietal areas, respectively. This study establishes the location and timing of frontal and parietal activations during an intra-dimensional versus extra-dimensional shifting task.     

Development of interactions between sensorimotor representations in school-aged children

Reliable sensory-motor integration is a pre-requisite for optimal movement control; the functionality of this integration changes during development. Previous research has shown that motor performance of school-age children is characterized by higher variability, particularly under conditions where vision is not available, and movement planning and control is largely based on kinesthetic input. The purpose of the current study was to determine the characteristics of how kinesthetic-motor internal representations interact with visuo-motor representations during development. To this end, we induced a visuo-motor adaptation in 59 children, ranging from 5 to 12 years of age, as well as in a group of adults, and measured initial directional error (IDE) and endpoint error (EPE) during a subsequent condition where visual feedback was not available, and participants had to rely on kinesthetic input. Our results show that older children (age range 9–12 years) de-adapted significantly more than younger children (age range 5–8 years) over the course of 36 trials in the absence of vision, suggesting that the kinesthetic-motor internal representation in the older children was utilized more efficiently to guide hand movements, and was comparable to the performance of the adults.     

Reducing postural sway by concurrently performing challenging cognitive tasks

The present experiment varied cognitive complexity and sensory modality on postural control in young adults. Seventeen participants (23.71 ± 1.99 years) were instructed to stand feet together on a force platform while concurrently performing cognitive tasks of varying degrees of difficulty (easy, moderate and difficult). The cognitive tasks were presented both, auditorily and visually. Auditory tasks consisted of counting the occurrence of one or two letters and repeating a string of words. Visual tasks consisted of counting the occurrence of one or two numbers. With increasing cognitive demand, area of 95% confidence ellipse and ML sway variability was significantly reduced. The visual tasks reduced ML sway variability, whereas the auditory tasks increased COP irregularity. We suggest that these findings are primarily due to an increase in sensorimotor integration as a result of a shift in attentional focus.     

Improving parent–child interactions through interactive reading workshops

IntroductionMany authors agree on the importance of training parents in early literacy strategies.ObjectiveThis study analyses the effects of an intervention to improve parent–child interactions during reading sessions, using interactive reading techniques.MethodThe design is exploratory and includes a treatment group (n = 22), which benefited from four interactive reading workshops, and a control group (n = 18), which did not benefit from specific training. Both groups read the same books, three times a week, for 10 weeks. The children come from middle socioeconomic backgrounds and attend preschool or kindergarten (grades 1–3).ResultsThe analyses were conducted on the basis of pre- and post-intervention video observations, coded using the Adult–Child Interactive Reading Inventory (ACIRI). Results from an ANCOVA show that parental behavior, and in turn child behavior, improves in post-intervention: parents improve their children's attention to the text and implement literacy strategies, while the children become more involved in the interactions.ConclusionInteractive reading workshops for parents improve the quantity and quality of parent–child interactions when reading books in a natural and playful context.     

Negative affectivity and EEG asymmetry interact to predict emotional interference on attention in early school-aged children

Negative affectivity (NA) is a broad construct that has been associated with the development of psychopathologies, such as anxiety, and with exaggerated attention to threatening stimuli. EEG asymmetry reflects biological individual differences in emotional reactivity that may underlie the association between NA and attention to threat. The present study included a sample of 31 five-seven year olds (M age in months = 74.39, SD = 6.57) to test the hypothesis that greater NA, combined with greater right anterior and posterior asymmetries, predicts increased attention interference following threat stimuli. Children completed an executive attention task which presented task-irrelevant threat (angry) and non-threat (neutral) faces prior to each trial. EEG asymmetry was measured at baseline for anterior, anterior-temporal and posterior scalp regions and child NA was measured via maternal report. As predicted, children showing greater NA and greater right anterior-temporal asymmetry showed more attention interference following angry faces. Additionally, two trend-level effects emerged: children showing greater NA and greater left anterior-temporal asymmetry showed less attention interference following angry faces, and children showing greater NA and greater left posterior asymmetry showed less attention interference, but only following neutral faces. Discussion focuses on the utility of using EEG asymmetry in the study of temperament, attentional biases, and the biological processes by which temperament confers risk for psychopathology.     

Early gray-matter and white-matter concentration in infancy predict later language skills: A whole brain voxel-based morphometry study

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) brain scans were obtained from 19 infants at 7 months. Expressive and receptive language performance was assessed at 12 months. Voxel-based morphometry (VBM) identified brain regions where gray-matter and white-matter concentrations at 7 months correlated significantly with children’s language scores at 12 months. Early gray-matter concentration in the right cerebellum, early white-matter concentration in the right cerebellum, and early white-matter concentration in the left posterior limb of the internal capsule (PLIC)/cerebral peduncle were positively and strongly associated with infants’ receptive language ability at 12 months. Early gray-matter concentration in the right hippocampus was positively and strongly correlated with infants’ expressive language ability at 12 months. Our results suggest that the cerebellum, PLIC/cerebral peduncle, and the hippocampus may be associated with early language development. Potential links between these structural predictors and infants’ linguistic functions are discussed.     

Life span changes: Performing a continuous 1:2 bimanual coordination task

The experiment was conducted to determine the influence of mirror movements in bimanual coordination during life span. Children, young adults, and older adults were instructed to perform a continuous 1:2 bimanual coordination task by performing flexion–extension wrist movements over 30 s where symmetrical and non-symmetrical coordination patterns alternate throughout the trial. The vision of the wrists was covered and Lissajous-feedback was provided online. All age groups had to perform 10 trials under three different load conditions (0 kg, .5 kg, 1.0 kg: order counterbalanced). Load was manipulated to determine if increased load increases the likelihood of mirror movements. The data indicated that the performance of the young adults was superior compared to the children and older adults. Children and older adults showed a stronger tendency to develop mirror movements and had particular difficulty in performing the non-symmetrical mode. This type of influence may be attributed to neural crosstalk.     

Different coordination and flexibility of the spine and pelvis during lateral bending between young and older adults

This study examined coordination of the spine and pelvis during lateral bending of the trunk in older adults. Thirty-four healthy subjects (17 young and 17 older adults) demonstrated lateral bending at a controlled speed while holding a bar at approximately 180 degrees of shoulder flexion. Kinematic data collection was completed on the thoracic spine, lumbar spine, and pelvis. The coupling angle was calculated to examine the thorax–lumbar, lumbar–pelvis, and thorax–pelvis coordination patterns. The older adults demonstrated a reduced range of motion (ROM) of the lumbar spine, while both groups revealed similar ROM in the thorax and in the pelvis. The coupling angle between the straightening and bending phases was different only for the older adults in the thorax–lumbar (23.4 ± 8.0 vs. −1.6 ± 4.4, p = 0.004) and the lumbar–pelvis (65.4 ± 7.2 vs. 86.1 ± 7.8, p = 0.001) coordination. However, there was no group difference in the thorax–pelvis coordination. These findings indicate that age-related changes in the lumbar region affect coordination patterns only during the bending phase. The older adults preserved a similar pattern of movement to the young adults during the straightening phase, but the coordination variability of the coupling angles was greater for the older adults than for the young adults. This movement pattern suggests that the older adults lacked consistent trunk control in an attempt to optimize lateral bending coordination.     

Neural correlates of Traditional Chinese Medicine induced advantageous risk-taking decision making

This fMRI study examined the neural correlates of the observed improvement in advantageous risk-taking behavior, as measured by the number of adjusted pumps in the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART), following a 60-day course of a Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) recipe, specifically designed to regulate impulsiveness in order to modulate risk-taking behavior. The 14 participants recruited for this study were randomly assigned to the experimental and control groups and the TCM recipe (Panax, 520 mg; Astragalus membranaceous Bunge, 520 mg; Masnetitum, 840 mg; Ostrea gigas Thumb, 470 mg; Thinleaf Milkwort Root Radix Polygalae, 450 mg; and Os Draconis, 470 mg) was administered, as a diet supplement, to the seven participants in the experimental group. The neural activity of the two groups was monitored by a 3T MRI scanner, before and after the 60-day treatment. Associated with the improved advantageous risk-taking behavior seen in the experimental group, significantly stronger blood oxygenation level dependent (BOLD) responses were observed in the bilateral dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), left putamen, left thalamus, right insula, and right anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), regions which have previously been reported as being involved in risk-taking decision making. The effect of the TCM in improving advantageous risk-taking decision making appears to have been related to the enhanced efficiency of the cognitive affective system, the PFC–ACC–insula–striatum network, which functions to inhibit impulsiveness, to sensitize reward-related information, and to allow the opportunity, during risk estimation, to evaluate potential gains and losses. The findings of this study suggest that interventions acting on factors modulating risk-taking decision making could have a beneficial effect in terms of optimizing risk-taking behavior.     

Parent perfectionism and psychopathology symptoms and child perfectionism

Perfectionism is a multidimensional construct associated with various psychological problems. Studies regarding risk factors for perfectionism are scarce but evidence suggests that parents may be highly involved in their child’s perfectionism. The present study included 160 children aged 8–17 years (67 males, 93 females) and their parents. Relationships between parent and child perfectionism and between parent psychopathology and child perfectionism were examined across 5 age groups (8–9 years, 10–11 years, 12–13 years, 14–15 years, 16–17 years). Self-oriented perfectionism was highest among children aged 16–17 years. Maternal perfectionism and maternal psychopathology predicted child self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism. Maternal anxiety mediated the relationship between maternal other-oriented perfectionism and socially prescribed perfectionism in children aged 8–12 years. Maternal perfectionism and psychopathology may constitute risk factors for child perfectionism. Findings are discussed in terms of their implications for theories of perfectionism.     

Social influence and physical activity in older females: Does activity preference matter?

BackgroundOlder adults appear to have different activity preferences (prefer to be active alone or with others, or show no preference). As the activity of older females is often associated with social influences (i.e., how others influence the behavior or thoughts of another), understanding how activity preference might interact with social influences becomes important.ObjectivesThis study explored whether activity preferences would moderate the social influence – physical activity relationship in older females.MethodsThe sample for this study was 102 older females with the majority (87%) classified as ‘maintainers’. Using a cross-sectional approach, participants completed questionnaires on social influences by channel (family, friends, healthcare workers) and type (modeling, compliance, conformity, obedience), activity preferences, and physical activity.ResultsMANOVA and follow-up results revealed that friends-modeling (F (2, 99) = 8.15, p < .01) and friends-compliance/conformity (F (2, 99) = 9.82, p < .01) were greater in individuals who preferred to be active with others than those who preferred to be active alone. Results from a hierarchical multiple regression examining activity preferences as a moderator were significant (R²_change = .11). For those who preferred to be active with others, friends-modeling was positively related to activity (b = 1.28). For individuals with no activity preference, activity was positively related to friends-compliance/conformity (b = 1.38) and negatively related to friends-modeling (b = ?1.56).ConclusionResults provide preliminary evidence that activity preferences appear to moderate the relationship between the influence of friends and activity in older females, especially for those who are activity maintainers.     

Analyzing drivers’ crossing decisions at unsignalized intersections in China

In China, when two vehicle drivers encounter at an unsignalized intersection, almost neither of them completely stops the vehicle. Instead, one gradually approaches and dynamically makes a decision to either yield or preempt by gaming with the other vehicle. This process generates traffic conflicts and increases the probability of accidents. In this study, we aimed to study how straight-moving drivers made preemptive/yielding decisions when they encountered other drivers straight-moving across at unsignalized intersections. A total of 150 crossing cases were collected at an unsignalized intersection in Kunming City, China. By using detection program we made, motion parameters of the vehicles were extracted. Classification tree analysis was used to identify the decision moment of drivers and the major motion parameters that affected their decisions. Results showed that for crossing processes at unsignalized intersections in China, straight-moving drivers from the right side made preemptive/yielding decisions from 0.9 s to 1.3 s before reaching the crossing point. However, straight-moving drivers from the left side made decisions from 0.9 s to 1.2 s before reaching the crossing point. The speed difference between the two vehicles was the most important factor that affected a driver’s decision-making. If the vehicle driver from the right side drove significantly slower than that from the left, then most drivers from the right side would yield to those from the left. On the contrary, if the vehicle driver from the right side drove significantly faster than that from the left, then most drivers from the right side would preempt those from the left. The findings of this study will help understand the decision-making patterns of drivers under crossing conditions, and thus provide suggestions to improve drivers’ behavior at unsignalized intersections in China.     

Development and initial assessment of a short measure for adult playfulness: The SMAP

This study reports an initial evaluation of a new short measure for adult playfulness (SMAP). In data from a construction (N = 266), and two replication samples (N = 147 students, N = 215 adults), a one-dimensional solution showed the best fit for the data and satisfactory internal consistency (.80–.89) was found (test–retest correlation = .74; 12–16 weeks). Younger adults scored higher in playfulness than older ones. The SMAP demonstrated robust correlations with measures for adult playfulness and the need for play. Cheerfulness and culture along with low seriousness and low conscientiousness were its best predictors. In ratings of an unordered work-space and a surrealistic painting, playful adults expressed higher liking for and lower disapproval of these compared to non-playful adults. Overall, the new scale yielded good psychometric properties and first evidence on its validity was encouraging. The SMAP has been developed for an economic, global assessment of adult playfulness, which is still an understudied topic in personality research.     

Teacher-student relationship quality and academic achievement in elementary school: A longitudinal examination of gender differences

Multiple group longitudinal cross-lagged panel models were implemented to understand the directional influences between teacher-student closeness and conflict and measured math and reading achievement across elementary grades and gender groups using the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development longitudinal sample (N = 1133). Specifically, after testing multiple group longitudinal measurement invariance to ensure consistent measurement across genders and time, and tests of equivalence of the latent parameters, we were interested in whether longitudinal changes in teacher-rated closeness and conflict explained longitudinal changes in achievement, and vice versa, and whether those longitudinal influences varied by gender. Latent teacher-student closeness decreased for both genders over time (Cohen's d = − 0.15 to − 0.32), but latent conflict increased for males (Cohen's d = 0.16). There was also increased heterogeneity in teacher-student relationship quality for males relative to females. Math and reading achievement had medium reciprocal effects (β = 0.12 to 0.23), and previous math achievement had small to medium effects on subsequent teacher-student closeness (β = 0.08 to 0.11) and conflict (β = − 0.07 to − 0.09). Teacher-student conflict and closeness did not influence subsequent levels of math or reading achievement once previous levels were controlled. Further, these influences were consistent across gender groups despite latent differences in teacher-student closeness and conflict with teachers reporting closer relationships with female students and more conflictual relationships with male students.     

The development of perceptual grouping biases in infancy: A Japanese-English cross-linguistic study

Perceptual grouping has traditionally been thought to be governed by innate, universal principles. However, recent work has found differences in Japanese and English speakers’ non-linguistic perceptual grouping, implicating language in non-linguistic perceptual processes (Iversen, Patel, & Ohgushi, 2008). Two experiments test Japanese- and English-learning infants of 5–6 and 7–8 months of age to explore the development of grouping preferences. At 5–6 months, neither the Japanese nor the English infants revealed any systematic perceptual biases. However, by 7–8 months, the same age as when linguistic phrasal grouping develops, infants developed non-linguistic grouping preferences consistent with their language’s structure (and the grouping biases found in adulthood). These results reveal an early difference in non-linguistic perception between infants growing up in different language environments. The possibility that infants’ linguistic phrasal grouping is bootstrapped by abstract perceptual principles is discussed.