Optimal experience among teachers: new insights into the work paradox

Several studies highlighted that individuals perceive work as an opportunity for flow or optimal experience, but not as desirable and pleasant. This finding was defined as the work paradox. The present study addressed this issue among teachers from the perspective of self-determination theory, investigating work-related intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, as well as autonomous and controlled behavior regulation. In Study 1, 14 teachers were longitudinally monitored with Experience Sampling Method for one work week. In Study 2, 184 teachers were administered Flow Questionnaire and Work Preference Inventory, respectively investigating opportunities for optimal experience, and motivational orientations at work. Results showed that work-related optimal experiences were associated with both autonomous regulation and with controlled regulation. Moreover, teachers reported both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation at work, with a prevailing intrinsic orientation. Findings provide novel insights on the work paradox, and suggestions for teachers' well-being promotion.     

Job strain and rumination about work issues during leisure time: A diary study

Previous research has suggested that high job strain (high demand, low control at work) is associated with an inability to “unwind” physiologically after work. It was speculated that one mechanism related to the “unwinding process” is an individual's ability to “cognitively switch-off” about work related issues after work. This hypothesis was tested in a diary study of primary and secondary school teachers who were asked to keep an hourly record of their work-related thoughts over a workday evening between 17.00 hrs and 21.00 hrs. As expected both groups demonstrated a degree of unwinding and disengagement from work issues over the evening. High strain (n = 34) teachers however took longer to unwind and ruminated more about work-related issues, relative to low job strain (n = 35) teachers. High job strain teachers also reported they had less personal control over what they were doing in the evening. Across the evening all individuals reported higher ruminative thoughts about work issues when alone than when with family and friends, but high strain teachers reported more ruminative cognitions when watching television and with family and friends than low strain teachers. The results could not be explained by work patterns as there was no difference in the number of hours worked in the evening between the two groups. It is argued that one reason why high job strain teachers failed to successfully unwind after work is that they ruminated more about work issues, than did low job strain teachers.     

Optimal experience and self-determination at school: Joining perspectives

This study aimed at investigating optimal experience during schoolwork in relation to SDT concepts of autonomy and locus of causality. Data were gathered from 268 high-school students using Experience Sampling Method for 1?week. Three levels of self-determination were identified: high (corresponding to autonomous regulation), moderate (mixed autonomous and controlled regulation), and low (controlled regulation). Consistently with the literature, the relationship between participants?? challenges and skills values was used to recognize occasions for optimal experience, and multilevel modeling was applied in data analysis. Findings showed that during schoolwork as optimal activity (high challenges and high skills) students mostly reported low levels of self-determination. However, the quality of their experience was better in situations of high and moderate self-determination. At the theoretical level, findings allow for a more articulated understanding of the characteristics of optimal experience in academic activities. Practical implications are discussed for enhancing well-being and committed learning at school.     

All work and no play: A focus on leisure time as a means for promoting health

In a study of 294 participants the relationship between attitude to leisure time and engagement in leisure activities and psychological and physical health was investigated Using questionnaire methods a consistent and significant relationship was found in that individuals with more positive attitudes towards and engagement in leisure activities experienced less general psychological distress, anxiety, depression, and hostility. They also experienced higher levels of positive affect and reported feeling physically healthier. Leisure measures were also related to levels of achievement motivation. The data points to leisure time behaviour as a rich source of information about coping styles and the positive use of leisure counselling as a therapeutic intervention.     

An exploration of the role of leisure in coping with work related stress using sequential tree analysis

The past three decades have seen an explosion of interest into the nature, causes and consequences of stress in both work and non-work settings. Given that leisure is of growing importance in most people's lives and that the impact of stress influences the way in which leisure is used, then the role that leisure plays as a means of coping with stress represents an important research agenda. In order to explore leisure's role in coping with work stress this research explored, using a sample of secondary school principals and deputy principals, three issues: (1) why an involvement in leisure was important, (2) what reasons were given as to why leisure was important to cope with stress, and (3) what coping strategies were actually used to cope with stress in relation to whether or not leisure had always been regarded as an important part of life. Each of these issues was explored using a technique called sequential tree analysis. This technique identifies patterns of data and arranges them in hierarchical order to provide a visual display that captures the richness of relationships not always present when more traditional methods are used. The different patterns that emerged point to the complex role that leisure plays. The results also point to the need to better understand combinations and patterns before it is possible to determine the exact nature of the presumed emotion-focused role that leisure may play in coping with work stress. These findings have implications for stress management interventions and the role of leisure in them and the need to distinguish between the meanings people give to the importance of leisure as distinct from the actual use of leisure as a coping strategy     

Spirituality and creative leisure

The following article examines creation-centered spirituality and leisure approaches to a way of life which gives healing and wholeness to individuals. Rather than limiting spirituality to mystics and saints, a wholistic spirituality based on the goodness of creation affirms the creativity in every person. Creative leisure is viewed as a necessary component of a spirituality which provides the basis for wholeness in humans. Not only the necessity of creative leisure for a vital Christian life for both laity and clergy but also its importance, particularly for those called to be ministers, is emphasized in the following essay.Gwen Laurie Wright, Ed.D. is a consultant in Spiritual Development.     

Flow at work: An experience sampling approach

One of the core constructs of the positive psychology movement is that of ‘flow’, or optimal experience. The current study investigated the relationship between ‘flow’, the core job dimensions, and subjective well‐being (SWB), as well as distinguishing between the state and trait components of flow. Experience sampling methodology (ESM) was used to track 40 architectural students over a 15 week semester while they engaged in studio work. Hierarchical linear modelling (HLM) indicated that 74% of the variance in flow was attributable to situational characteristics compared to dispositional factors. Results also indicated that academic work that was high in skill variety and autonomy was associated with flow. Flow was found to be correlated with positive mood. Cross‐lagged regression analysis showed that momentary flow was predictive of momentary mood and not vice versa. The strengths and limitations of using ESM to study subjective work experiences and well‐being are discussed, as well as the implications of the study of flow or optimal experience for industrial/organizational psychology.     

The relation of career adaptability to work experience,extracurricular activities,and work transition in Portuguese graduate students

This study analyzed the psychometric properties and the factor structure of the Career Adapt-Abilities Scale (CAAS)—Portugal HE Form with 406 graduate students and explored the relationship between career adaptability, work experience, extracurricular activities and work transition. The analysis allows us to conclude that CAAS can be a valid and useful measurement for assessing career adaptability in Portuguese graduates. The differential analysis evidenced that participants with student worker status and with work experiences reported displayed higher scores on the subscales of control and curiosity, respectively. No statistical differences emerged regarding experience of extracurricular activities. Also, participants who referred to anticipating difficulties in work transition scored significantly lower on the subscales of control than did their peers who do not anticipate difficulties in such transitions. The obtained results support the importance of considering practical experiences and fostering career adaptability during higher education studies as a way to help graduates manage the transition to professional contexts.     

Urban adolescents’ experience of social class in relationships at work

This article describes a qualitative study examining two interrelated facets of the school-to-work transition among urban high school students: their relationships with important adults within that transition and the ways they experience the subjective aspects of social class and class-related constructs in those relationships. Participants were 27 urban adolescents participating in a school-to-work program or otherwise employed after school. We analyzed data generated from participants’ elaborations on their scaled responses to adapted Relational Health Index items pertaining to supervisors and other important adults at work. Qualitative analysis identified four thematic categories of how social class is experienced in urban adolescents’ relationships at work: Navigation of Identity; Perceptions of Similarity, Difference, and Being Understood; Receipt of Mobility Encouragement; and Awareness of Stratification. Results suggest that the first two of these categories represent the ways that participants work to find balance between the dual realities of Mobility and Stratification.     

Sources of renewal: A qualitative study on the experience and role of leisure in the life of counsellors and psychologists

The purpose of this study was to investigate the experience and role of leisure in the lives of practicing counsellors and psychologists. Qualitative methods involving semi-structured interviews were employed with ten participants, between the ages of 39–55. The findings of the study revealed that: (a) leisure improves the ability of counsellors and psychologists to cope with and improve performance at work, (b) attitude plays an important role in experiencing true leisure, (c) true leisure moments are often described in similar terms as spiritual moments, (d) leisure facilitates meaningful connections with others, (e) leisure in nature facilitates receptivity to spiritual experience, (f) one's choices of leisure and ways of approaching it reveal much about who the person is, and, (g) leisure is a major factor in promoting balance and integration.     

Debriefing work experience: A reflection on reflection?

Using date from a pilot study into pupil work experience pre-16, it is argued that work experience has expanded rapidly on the basis of little evidence and many claims about what it can achieve. As experience-based learning, it relies heavily upon debriefing to maximise its learning potential. If work experience is to be more than a work transition exercise, then debriefing becomes central to its success. Although difficult to accomplish and surrounded by muddled definitions, this approach deserves greater attention in view of the contribution it can make to pupils' ability to manage their own learning and the foundation it can provide for continuous learning throughout life.     

The importance of leisure as a means of coping with work related stress: An exploratory study

Work stress researchers have long recognized the importance of coping in the work stress relationship and there is now a growing body of literature exploring the measurement and classification of coping strategies. While a range of coping activities have been explored one area that has received a less than complete treatment is the importance individuals give to leisure as a means of coping with work related stress. This research set out to explore the important reasons individual attach to leisure as a means of coping with work stress. The sample was made up of 695 principals and deputy principals from secondary schools throughout New Zealand. Analysis revealed that there were two reasons why leisure is important as a means of coping; one because of its active/challenging nature and the other because of its more passive/recuperative nature. The items that made up these two broad categories were then further explored in relation to a number of measures of well-being. This involved the use of sequential tree analysis and the sequential unfolding of the different reasons. The pattern to emerge suggested that 'being totally focused' was an important reason for engaging in active/challenging leisure whereas a more complex profile emerged for using passive/recuperative leisure activities. The significance of these findings is discussed in terms of intervention strategies and the role of leisure within work stress research.     

Work, leisure and well-being

Both work and leisure are essential for well-being. Yet the ways in which we conceptualise work, leisure and well-being are in flux, reflecting, in part, the changing societal, economic and community contexts in which work and leisure take place. This paper first discusses the contested nature of work and leisure in relation to well-being, and then considers current evidence concerning the ways in which work and leisure are experienced in contemporary society. The emerging issues are then discussed drawing on two international studies which indicate the increasingly global nature of these concerns. The pervasiveness of the trend towards intensification of work, reducing time and energy for other activities, and the gendered impact of this trend are evident in both studies. Many commentators have noted the negative effects of current working patterns on well-being. Finally, some implications for guidance and counselling as well as future research, are explored.     

A meta-analysis of the criterion-related validity of prehire work experience

Organizations frequently screen or select job applicants based on their work experience. Despite this, surprisingly little is known about the criterion-related validity of prehire experience, which reflects the amount, duration, or type of experience workers have acquired before they enter a new organization. To address this critical gap in the literature, we used meta-analysis to synthesize data from 81 independent samples that reported relations between prehire experience and performance or turnover. Results revealed overall corrected correlations of .06 for job performance (k = 44, n = 11,785), .11 for training performance (k = 21, n = 8,176), and .00 for turnover (k = 32, n = 11,676). Measures that capture prehire experience with tasks, jobs, or occupations relevant to workers’ current position also are only weakly related to the outcomes (e.g.,  = .07 for job performance). Two exceptions to our main findings are that (a) prehire experience is somewhat more predictive of job performance when workers first start a new job and (b) measures of task-level experience predict training performance, although these results are based on small subsets of primary studies. Overall, the present findings suggest that the types of prehire experience measures organizations currently use to screen job applicants generally are poor predictors of future performance and turnover. We therefore caution organizations from selecting employees based on such measures unless more positive evidence emerges.