Relations Between Instructional Practices and On-Task Behavior in Classrooms Serving American Indian Students

Achievement disparities between American Indian students and non-American Indian peers are persistent and well documented. Student engagement is a promising target for intervention given its relation to academic achievement. This study investigated the relation between specific teacher practices (opportunities to respond [OTRs], praise, and reprimands) and classroom on-task behavior in an urban, public K–8 school that serves primarily American Indian students. OTRs and praise were positively associated with student on-task behavior, whereas reprimands were negatively associated with on-task behavior. Results from multilevel logistic regression indicated that OTRs significantly increased the likelihood that a classroom was highly on-task, whereas the reprimands significantly decreased the likelihood. Praise did not have a significant effect after controlling for the other variables in the model. Results are interpreted in a context of evidence-based instructional practices for increasing OTRs and praise, decreasing reprimands, and ultimately enhancing on-task behavior in an urban classrooms serving primarily American Indian youth.     

Effects of reprimands and praise on appropriate behavior in the classroom

The effects of positive consequences on appropriate behavior at the beginning of a classroom experience were examined during an academic program for students with behavioral and academic difficulties. The results showed that the use of reprimands alone was associated with high levels of on-task behaviors during the initial days of the class. The addition of praise produced no change in the rate of on-task behaviors or the level of academic performance. The withdrawal of all consequences caused significant decreases in on-task behavior and academic productivity. The subsequent use of praise alone led to an initial increase followed by a dramatic decline in on-task performance, resulting in no change in the average rate of on-task behavior relative to the use of no consequences. These results are consistent with previous findings indicating the importance of reprimands for maintaining appropriate classroom behavior. Speculations regarding potential roles of praise are briefly discussed.The authors wish to thank classroom teacher Bonnie Chatterton for her exceptional cooperation and effort, Mark Gunning for his valuable assistance in the data collection, and Ann Abramowitz for her helpful editorial comments.     

INDIRECT FACILITATION OF ON-TASK BEHAVIOR PRODUCED BY CONTINGENT FREE-TIME FOR ACADEMIC PRODUCTIVITY1

This study investigated the relationship between on-task behavior and the academic performance of three low achieving and disruptive children in an elementary school special-education class. A number of researchers have postulated that the direct elimination of off-task or disruptive behavior is a necessary prior requirement when increases in academic performance are sought in special-education classrooms composed of low achievers with below-average socioeconomic environments. The present research program investigated this issue and measured the incidence of on-task behavior and its relationship to changes in the performance of a variety of academic tasks brought about by the opportunity to engage in daily free-time activities. Three children from a class of eight “educably mentally handicapped” students were chosen as target subjects, as their repertoires seemed to be especially defective. These children were observed by the first author for 90-minute sessions three days a week, and data regarding on-task behavior were obtained by the use of an interval recording technique. In conjunction with the teacher, the first author also monitored the academic performance of the children in six structured activities—answer completion from boardwork instructions, task completion from handout assignments, comprehension of reading assignments and vocabulary recognition, accuracy of direction-following to audiotaped instructions, quality of copied handwriting, and the matching of appropriate phonetic sounds to pictured objects and situations. Following baseline sessions during which both on-task and academic performance was measured, several experimental sessions were conducted during which free-time was given noncontingently. During these sessions, no reliable changes in student performance were observed. Subsequently, the teacher and experimenters defined a specified percentage of correct completion of each of the six categories of skill performance as necessary for the achievement of the free-time reinforcer, during each experimental session. As a result, both the academic productivity and the on-task measures of behavior were observed to increase, even though reinforcement was not directly contingent upon on-task behavior. The subsequent reinstitution of noncontingent free-time was followed by lower rates of both output and on-task behavior. The final reintroduction of contingent free-time for academic productivity again produced substantial increases in both work accomplished correctly and on-task behavior. Corresponding increases in productivity were noted for most nontarget children as well. While the present investigation has shown a high correspondence between productivity and on-task behavior, we must keep in mind that on-task behavior can be defined in many different ways. It remains possible that differences in the degree of correlation between outcome measures and the topography of “work” activity may relate to the degree to which the specific on-task behaviors measured are actually required for the outcome behavior. The failure of many researchers to identify a direct relationship between “appearances” and output may be inherently a measurement problem.     

Response Blocking with Guided Compliance and Reinforcement for a Habilitative Replacement Behavior: Effects on Public Masturbation and On-Task Behavior

ABSTRACT

There is limited empirical research regarding effective treatment for public masturbation. In the current study, the relative and combined effects of reinforcement of an incompatible habilitative replacement behavior and response blocking with guided compliance on masturbation and on-task behavior were evaluated for a seven year-old African-American female with a traumatic brain injury who masturbated in her regular and special education classrooms. Results indicated that response blocking with guided compliance was successful in reducing masturbation. However, response blocking with guided compliance and reinforcement of an incompatible response was most effective for reducing masturbation and simultaneously increasing on-task behavior.     

The Effects of a Reinforcement Package for On-Task and Reading Behavior with At-Risk and Middle School Students with Disabilities

ABSTRACT

The purpose of the present study is to evaluate the use of a reinforcement package with four middle school students who were below grade level in reading. Data were gathered, independently by two observers, for on-task behavior for the number of correct words read for a two-minute timed trial, and for book pre- and posttests. These data were gathered during Direct Instruction Corrective Reading Lessons. The participants earned points for increases in reading academic behaviors and on-task during the lesson. The effects of the reinforcement package were evaluated in an ABAB single case replication design. The overall outcomes indicate that on-task behavior improved from the low levels during both baselines and increased to high levels when the reinforcement package was in effect. Changes in reading rate were also dramatic with the largest increases found when the reinforcement package was in effect. Increases in pre- and posttest scores were noted for each of the participants. The advantages of employing consequences in conjunction with Direct Instruction reading materials and procedures were outlined. The role of enhancing academic skills of at-risk and children with disabilities was also outlined.     

The gap between athletes’ and parents’ perceptions of parental practices: The role of gender

ObjectivesThe present study explored the differences between athletes’ and parents’ perceptions of parental practices (i.e., active involvement, directive, pressure, praise, and understanding behaviours implemented by parents in the context of their child’s sport) by considering athletes’ and parents’ gender.Designcross-sectional study.MethodParents (N = 352) and athletes (N = 256, M = 14.72 years) completed a questionnaire to measure their perceptions of parental practices in sport. Zero-order correlations were computed for the entire sample and each sub-group (i.e., father-daughter, father-son, mother-daughter, and mother-son). One-level multilevel model (level 1: respondent) was computed to measure the influence of the respondent on the perceptions of parental practices. Two-level multilevel model (level 1: respondent, level 2: dyad) estimated the impact of the athletes’ gender, parents’ gender, and their interaction on the differences in perceptions.ResultsCorrelations highlighted relatively modest concordance between perceptions of parents and adolescents. Multilevel models showed that compared to athletes, parents reported significantly less frequent use for directive behaviours (β = −0.29) and more frequent use for active involvement (β = −0.18) and praise and understanding (β = 0.27). Correlations and multilevel models showed that the differences between athletes’ and parents’ perceptions of parental practices differed according to gender. The differences in perceptions of the directive behaviours (β = −0.22) and active involvement (β = 0.22) were higher when the father was involved in the dyad compared to the mother.     

Effects of positive and negative adult-child interactions on children's task performance and task preferences

In individual sessions, an adult directed three boys to work on each of three different tasks. Within a given session the on-task behavior for one task was praised, the off-task behavior for another task was verbally reprimanded, and all behavior was ignored with the third task. Using a multielement baseline design, the manner in which the adult interacted with the children on a given task varied from day to day. Across 18 sessions, verbal reprimands produced the highest task rates, with praise producing only a slightly higher rate of responding than noninteraction. After each session the children were given the choice of which of the three tasks they wished to work on when the adult left the room for a few minutes. Tasks associated with verbal reprimands of off-task behavior were never chosen. The first and second choices were always the task associated with praise for on-task behavior or the task where the children were ignored. These preferences generalized to similar tasks.     

THE EFFICACY OF AN ALL-POSITIVE APPROACH TO CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

This study addressed the question of whether an all-positive approach to classroom management can be effective. The on-task behavior and academic performance of eight, second- and third-grade children with behavior problems were examined. Results indicated that an all-positive approach that relied primarily on praise was not effective. However, when an individualized reward system was used, the children's rates of on-task behavior were high and stable. Similar effects were observed for academic productivity. Thus, a classroom can be managed using only positive consequences. However, to be successful, such an approach may require a considerable amount of teacher time and effort, particularly potent, varied and individual rewards, and high rates of appropriate behavior previously established using both positive and negative consequences.     

Effects of Self-Monitoring on On-Task Behaviors of At-Risk Middle School Students

The purposes of this study were to evaluate the effects of self-monitoring on increasing the on-task behaviors of four at-risk middle school students, and to examine its indirect effects on academic performance. Additionally, we attempted to develop and validate cost- and time-efficient procedures that typical classroom teachers could use. The data from a multiple baseline design across three academic settings, replicated with four students, revealed immediate increases in on-task behavior as each student began to self-monitor in each sequential setting. The data also revealed slightly higher levels of academic performance and, in most instances, gradually accelerating trends. These findings suggest that self-monitoring is a cost- and time-efficient procedure that classroom teachers can use to teach at-risk students to manage their own behaviors.     

Effects of self-monitoring and subsequent fading of external prompts on the on-task behavior and task productivity of elementary students with moderate mental retardation

This study investigated the effectiveness of self-monitoring on the on-task behavior and vocational production rates of 5 elementary students with moderate mental retardation during biweekly pre-vocational workshop sessions. They were taught to use a recording form to monitor their behavior and were cued to monitor by audiotaped tones. A multiple-baseline design across tasks was used to demonstrate a functional relationship between self-monitoring and both on-task behavior and task productivity. Once this relationship was demonstrated, the monitoring form and audiotape were withdrawn through fading procedures. Results indicated that (a) self-monitoring increased both on-task behavior and vocational task production rates, (b) performance gains maintained while cues and monitoring forms were withdrawn, and (c) gains maintained over several weeks in the absence of prompts (i.e., forms and tones).     

Direct and collateral effects of positive reinforcement,response cost,and mixed contingencies for academic performance

The relative effects of positive reinforcement, response cost, and the two contingencies combined when used as contingencies for correct academic responses were compared on the dependent measures of accuracy of academic performance and level of on-task behavior. Thirty-three fourth- and fifth-grade pupils served as subjects. A combination of between-group and within-group comparisons indicated that all three contingency systems increased academic performance and on-task behavior (even though on-task behavior was never directly reinforced), but differences in effectiveness between the systems were insignificant. Most importantly, treatment effects on academic performance and on-task behavior persisted following abrupt withrawal of treatments for all three contingency systems. These results confirm earlier speculations that the reinforcement of academic behavior is (a) more likely to positively influene both academic and on-task behavior than in reinforcement of on-task behavior, and (b) is much more resistant to extinction following abrupt termination of the program.     

Empirically distinguishing interpersonal styles within romantic relationships: What is helpful or harmful when having a goal for your romantic partner?

IntroductionRelationship research rooted in self-determination theory often focuses on autonomy support. However, rarely is this interpersonal style considered alongside other facets of relational behaviours such as directive support and control.ObjectiveThe present study aimed to distinguish the three styles by providing a tool that can simultaneously assess them.MethodA total sample of 710 French Canadians involved in a romantic relationship was used for factor extraction and test of dimensionality as well as reliability. Predictive validity was tested using multiple linear regressions with six outcomes: well-being, relationship quality, closeness, goal progress, cooperation and conflicts.ResultsResults suggested three distinct interpersonal styles, each of which showing a different pattern of prediction with the outcomes. Overall, autonomy support was associated with positive outcomes, whereas control was associated with negative outcomes. As for directive support, the global pattern was between the two others.ConclusionThe present research offers a scale which simultaneously assesses and distinguishes the autonomy-supportive, directive-supportive and controlling styles in a romantic relationship context using three items each. By examining the associations between these three interpersonal styles and various outcomes four months later, this study sheds light on helpful and harmful behaviours in relation to the goals people have for their romantic partner.     

Frequent Versus Non-frequent Prompts and Task Performance in Persons with Severe Intellectual Disability

Abstract

This study extended the evaluation of frequent vs non-frequent prompts to support task performance with people with severe intellectual disability. Three participants were involved in the study. The data indicated that the frequent prompts strategy promoted higher levels of on-task behaviour and correct responding for 2 participants and on-task behaviour for 1 participant. The relation of these data with previous findings and their implications for daily occupation programmes for persons with severe developmental disabilities are discussed     

Internet-based parent management training: a randomized controlled study

ObjectiveThe current study evaluated the efficacy of an Internet-based parent-training program for children with conduct problems. Dose–response ratio and costs for the program were also considered.MethodParents of 104 children (aged 3–12 years) were randomly allocated to either parent training or a waitlist control condition. Diagnostic assessment was conducted at baseline and parent ratings of child externalizing behaviors and parent strategies were completed before and after treatment and at 6-month follow-up.ResultsAt post-treatment assessment, children whose parent(s) had received the intervention showed a greater reduction in conduct problems compared to the waitlist children. Between group intent-to-treat effect sizes (Cohen’s d) on the Eyberg Intensity and Problem scales were .42 and .72, respectively (study completers .66 and 1.08). In addition, parents in the intervention group reported less use of harsh and inconsistent discipline after the treatment, as well as more positive praise. Effects on behavior problems were maintained at 6-month follow-up.ConclusionsThe results support the efficacy of parent training, administered through Internet, with outcomes comparable to many of the group-based parent training programs. The efficacy, low cost, and higher accessibility make this intervention a fitting part in a stepped-care model.     

The impact of group leaders' behaviour on parents acquisition of key parenting skills during parent training

BackgroundParent training (PT) is identified as the most effective intervention for the treatment of conduct disorder (CD). Intervention observational outcomes are often reported as summarised composite scores, providing an overview of overall construct change.Methods and aimsParents of children aged 3–5 years identified ‘at risk’ of developing CD were randomly allocated to either PT intervention or waiting list control group. Parent and child behaviours were assessed before and after the intervention period. The current paper aims to establish which individual observed parenting categories change as a result of PT, and which specific observed leader categories predict these changes.ResultsControlling for baseline scores, ANCOVA demonstrated changes in parent praise and reflective behaviours as significant post-intervention. One-way ANOVAs demonstrated higher levels of leader praise and reflective behaviours resulted in greater change in parental praise and reflective behaviours respectively. Regression analyses indicated these leader behaviours predict positive change in parental praise and reflective behaviours for intervention families.ConclusionsComposite observational scores provide an account of behaviour constructs, whereas individual behaviour categories provide an insight into the core components of these constructs. The results suggest praise and reflection as key leader behaviours that influence the mechanisms of change in parenting behaviours as a result of PT.     

Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior in the Treatment of Inappropriate Behavior and Aggression in an Adult with Mental Retardation at a Vocational Center

Differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO) was used to reduce aggression and other inappropriate actions in a 26-year-old man with moderate mental retardation employed at a vocational center. Initially high baseline levels of inappropriate behavior were reduced by implementing contingent praise and a sticker system used to earn points needed to gain access to social activities. The procedure was low cost, required minimal time and effort on the part of center staff, and made it possible for the client to remain employed at the vocational center.     

Temporal discounting predicts student responsiveness to exchange delays in a classroom token system

Typical assessments of temporal discounting involve presenting choices between hypothetical monetary outcomes. Participants choose between smaller immediate rewards and larger delayed rewards to determine how the passage of time affects the subjective value of reinforcement. Few studies, however, have compared such discounting to actual manipulations of reward delay. The present study examined the predictive validity of a temporal discounting procedure developed for use with children. Forty-six sixth-grade students completed a brief discounting assessment and were then exposed to a classwide intervention that involved both immediate and delayed reinforcement in a multiple baseline design across classrooms. The parameters derived from two hyperbolic models of discounting correlated significantly with actual on-task behavior under conditions of immediate and delayed exchange. Implications of temporal discounting assessments for behavioral assessment and treatment are discussed.     

COLLATERAL GAINS AND SHORT-TERM MAINTENANCE IN READING AND ON-TASK RESPONSES BY INNER-CITY ADOLESCENTS AS A FUNCTION OF THEIR USE OF SOCIAL REINFORCEMENT WHILE TUTORING

Two experiments are reported concerning the effects of the differential use of verbal approval by problematic adolescents serving as tutors in a remedial reading program for an inner-city school. The experiments, each with 3 tutors and 15 tutees, used a combined multiple baseline and ABCBC design. Data showed that tutors' approvals as well as tutors' and tutees' on-task and reading responses were low and stable during baseline. Tutors were trained to use verbal approval for tutees' on-task behavior. Tokens were presented and withdrawn to control the tutors' use of approval. During phases in which tutors' approvals were raised via token dispensation, tutor reading and on-task scores increased in a nonexperimental setting. Tutee reading scores also increased as a function of tutor approvals. The second experiment replicated these findings and, in addition, (a) tested the validity of changes in reading responses via standardized tests, (b) isolated and compared the covariance between variables in all phases, and (c) provided data on tutee attention to tutors as a possible natural reinforcer for the short-term maintenance found in both studies. Data are discussed as evidence that tutors had acquired the ability to recruit reinforcement from the classroom for appropriate behavior.     

Increasing achievement motivation and work productivity in a chronic psychiatric population

The major goal of this study was to determine if social reinforcement for behavior in a simulated work activity would increase achievement motivation, work interest, and simulated work activity production. Forty-five chronic psychiatric patients were randomly assigned to one of three groups: work sample with praise, work sample without praise, and a no-treatment control group. A 3 (between) × 2 (within) analysis of variance was run for each dependent measure, that is, achievement imagery, work interests, and simulated work production. The main effect for the interaction between trials and treatment was significant on each dependent measure. Follow-up Duncan Multiple Range Tests indicated that the praise group showed a significant improvement on each dependent measure, pre to post, as well as significantly greater improvement than the no-treatment control group and/or the work sample without praise group. These results are discussed in terms of the procedure used as a method for increasing motivation and in terms of possible generalization of results to other treatment situations.     

BEHAVIORAL AND STIMULANT TREATMENT OF HYPERACTIVE CHILDREN: A THERAPY STUDY WITH METHYLPHENIDATE PROBES IN A WITHIN-SUBJECT DESIGN

Eight hyperactive children were treated with a behavioral intervention focusing on teacher and parent training over a period of 5 months. Three times, before therapy and after 3 weeks and 13 weeks of intervention, children received methylphenidate during 3-week probe periods. Each week in a probe they received either a placebo, .25 mg/kg, or .75 mg/kg methylphenidate. Classroom observations of on-task behavior suggested that effectiveness of the behavioral intervention was between that of the two dosages of medication before therapy. Both dosages resulted in higher levels of on-task behavior when administered after 13 weeks of behavioral intervention than when administered before therapy. Teacher rating data showed equivalent effects of therapy and the low dosage of methylphenidate alone but a stronger effect of the high dose alone; only the high dose resulted in improved behavior after 13 weeks of behavioral intervention. As a group, only when they received the high dose of methylphenidate after 13 weeks of behavioral intervention did children reach the level of appropriate behavior shown by nonhyperactive controls. However, this level was also reached by two children with the low dose and by one child without medication, and it was not reached by one child. The results suggest that the combination of psychostimulant medication and behavior therapy may be more effective in the short-term than either treatment alone for hyperactive children in school settings. In addition, parent ratings and clinic observation of parent-child interactions suggested that children had improved in the home setting, highlighting the importance of behavioral parent training in the treatment of hyperactivity.