The Influences of Friends' and Parental Smoking on Adolescent Smoking Behavior: The Effects of Time and Prior Smoking1

This research examines the relative importance of parental and friends' influences on adolescents' smoking behavior and changes in the effects of social influences during adolescence. Data were collected at 4 times from 7th to 9th grades. Random-effects ordinal regression models were employed to predict the repeated classification of adolescent smoking status using time effects, prior smoking status, friends' smoking, and parental smoking. In general, the effects of friends' smoking are stronger than those of parental smoking, and these differences increase over time. In addition, friends' smoking has greater effects on nonsmokers than smokers. Separate models for males and females disclose some gender differences. In particular, the effects of friends' smoking are stronger for females than for males, and the increasing trend of friends' influences is more noticeable for females than for males. Models for 4 ethnic groups also suggest differential susceptibility to social influences in different cultures.     

Visual and Auditory Message Framing Effects on Tobacco Smoking1

Persuasive health messages can be framed to emphasize the benefits of adopting a health behavior (gains) or the risks of not adopting it (losses). This study examined the effects of message framing on beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors relevant to cigarette smoking. In video presentations about tobacco smoking, visual images and auditory voiceover content were framed either as gains or losses, yielding 4 message conditions. Undergraduates (N= 437) attending a public university in New England were assigned randomly to view one of these messages. Gain‐framed messages about smoking in visual and auditory modalities shifted smoking‐related beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors in the direction of avoidance and cessation. Health‐communication experts, when promoting prevention behaviors like smoking avoidance or cessation, may wish to diverge from the tradition of using loss‐framed messages and fear appeals in this domain, and instead consider using gain‐framed appeals that present the advantages of not smoking.     

Effects of Exposure to Cigarette Advertisements on Adolescents' Attitudes Toward Smoking1

One hundred seventy-eight adolescents viewed a magazine that either contained or did not contain 4 cigarette advertisements. Adolescents who have tried smoking reported more positive attitudes toward smoking. Of the adolescents who have tried smoking, those in the cigarette-advertisement-present condition expressed more positive attitudes toward smoking than did those in the cigarette-advertisement-absent condition. Consistent with the prediction that adolescents who have tried (vs. never tried) smoking would attend more to cigarette advertisements, adolescents in the cigarette-advertisement-present condition who have tried (vs. never tried) smoking correctly recognized more cigarette advertisements. Taken together, these results suggest that adolescents who have tried smoking are attending to cigarette advertisements and are impacted by cigarette advertisements; specifically, cigarette advertisements bolster these adolescents' attitudes toward smoking.     

The Effects of Beliefs About Smoking and Health on Smoking Cessation

The purpose of this study was to examine whether beliefs of an American sample about smoking and health, as defined by cognitive orientation theory, would determine those smoking cessation program participants who would become abstainers and those who would not. Although the smoking cessation program was not designed to influence the specific kinds of beliefs studied, subscales measuring two of the four types of beliefs differentiated participants who would become abstainers from those who would not. Abstainers tended to have stronger goal beliefs about their desire to quit smoking, and stronger beliefs about the health-related implications of smoking. Participants' beliefs that they could resist an urge to smoke, which implied the use of coping skills, were more important in determining who would abstain from smoking than was their confidence that they could quit smoking, which implied the use of willpower.     

Social Costs of Smoking: Effects of Tobacco Smoke on Hostile Behavior1

Male and female undergraduates interacted with a same-sex experimenter and a same-sex assistant of the experimenter. Either the experimenter or the assistant smoked. Subjects were provoked or not provoked by the experimenter and then smoked. Subjects were provoked or not provided by the experimenter and then provided with an opportunity to treat him or her in a hostile manner. Additionally, subjects were classified as smokers or nonsmokers and as supporting or opposing smoking in public places. Tobacco smoke was found to facilitate hostile behavior whether or not subjects were independently annoyed and whether or not it originated from the annoyer or a bystander. No sex differences were observed in this effect. Also, no appreciable difference was observed in the hostile behavior of smokers and nonsmokers. Persons opposed to public smoking reacted more strongly to the provocation than persons supportive of public smoking, but this effect was independent of the presence or absence of smoke.     

吸烟者对香烟相关线索注意偏向的研究述评

吸烟者对香烟相关线索的注意偏向近年来颇受研究界青睐,现有研究大都集中在吸烟者注意偏向的理论解释、研究范式、发生状况以及与吸烟成瘾的关系等方面。其中,在理论解释上形成了诱因敏感、自动行动图式、诱因习惯和目前关注等理论;在研究范式上主要有成瘾stroop任务、点探测任务和线索调控的惊跳测试;在发生状况上涉及发生的被试特征、发生的意识状态、发生的注意阶段、发生的生化基础;在与吸烟成瘾的关系上包括与主观渴求和与觅烟行为的关系。鉴于目前研究所限,未来研究需纳入线索-靶子等研究范式,以深入探讨吸烟者注意偏向的发生阶段及其与吸烟成瘾的关系,进而发现吸烟者注意偏向的特异性之所在。     

Effects of Contract Framing,Motivation to Quit,and Self-Efficacy on Smoking Reduction1

Social learning theorists (SLT) have advocated that individual's cognitive beliefs about perceived behavioral ability and outcome expectancies are predictive of behavior change. SLT's also propose that the threat of losing positive rewards may result in greater behavior change than gaining rewards for altering behaviors such as smoking. Specifically, presenting behavioral outcomes in a loss frame context has proven more influential under certain conditions than presenting outcomes in a gain frame context. The present study evaluated the relationship between smoking cessation self-efficacy motivation to quit, and contract framing on smoking reduction. The majority of cognitive and behavioral changes occurred between baseline and 3 months into a 12-month treatment program. An interaction between contract framing and motivation to quit suggested that, for subjects with low motivation, receiving combined (gain plus loss) frame contracts resulted in smoking fewer cigarettes posttreatment than receiving gain frame only contracts. An interaction between framing and self-efficacy also indicated that subjects who received combined frame contracts smoked fewer cigarettes if they had high rather than low self-efficacy beliefs.     

不同干预者在青少年吸烟行为预防干预活动中的作用

选取北京市一所普通中学初一、初二、高一各三个班与高二两个班的359名学生为被试,随机分成教师实施干预组、课题组成员实施干预组和控制组,以比较教师和课题组成员的不同干预效果。结果发现：课题组成员为干预者的效果好于教师;教师组青少年后测比前测更认同吸烟的危害,课题成员组青少年后测比前测更反对吸烟的好处、更赞同吸烟具有各种危害;课题组成员和教师都能显著地提高被试的抵制技能;干预条件可间接通过吸烟好处和抵制技能对青少年后测吸烟行为产生作用。     

Effects of Enforcement of Youth Access Laws on Smoking Prevalence

Smoking is the primary preventable cause of death, and yet 3,000 adolescents become smokers each day. Most adult smokers begin this deadly habit when they are under the age of 18, which is the minimum legal age for the purchase of cigarettes. The majority of adolescent smokers are able to purchase cigarettes even though laws prohibit the sale of cigarettes to minors. In the late 1980s, Woodridge, IL, became one of the first towns in the nation to demonstrate a significant reduction in the ability of youth to purchase cigarettes. Almost 2 years after passage of this legislation, the percentage of regular smokers among 7th- and 8th-grade students had been reduced from 16 to 5%. Seven-year follow-up data in a sample of high school youths indicate that youths living in communities with regular enforcement had significantly less smoking than those living in communities without regular enforcement. In particular, rates of regular smoking were 8.1% in communities with regular enforcement versus 15.5% in communities without regular enforcement. It is possible that adolescents who had restricted access to tobacco products were less likely to become regular smokers. These findings have important public health implications, particularly in light of recent federal legislation mandating that all states develop programs to reduce access of youth to tobacco products.     

Chronic Smoking and Emotionality1

Self-report data were gathered on the chronic emotionality of smokers and nonsmokers in a number of samples. The results were discussed relative to the literature on sociopathy and recent studies that found smokers to be more emotional than nonsmokers. It was argued that an S's own emotional feelings must be distinguished from the behavioral observations of others, and that the smoking habit might well lead to a generally lowered level of felt emotionality.     

Mass-Media Information Campaigns and Knowledge-Gap Effects1

The knowledge-gap hypothesis of Tichenor, Donohue, and Olien (1970) states that people from the higher socioeconomic segments of society acquire information at a faster rate than people from the lower socioeconomic segments. The consequence is a growing knowledge gap between the high and low segments. The present study investigates some potential causes for this knowledge-gap phenomenon by means of data sets from evaluation studies of 3 mass-media information campaigns. The observed differences in knowledge between low and highly educated respondents could partly be explained by differences in the attention paid to the campaigns but not by differences in information processing.     

Effects of Initial Abstinence and Programmed Lapses on The Relative Reinforcing Effects of Cigarette Smoking

Fifty-eight smokers received abstinence-contingent monetary payments for 1 (n  =  15) or 14 (n  =  43) days. Those who received contingent payments for 14 days also received 0, 1, or 8 experimenter-delivered cigarette puffs on 5 evenings. The relative reinforcing effects of smoking were assessed in a 3-hr session on the final study day, when participants made 20 choices between smoking or money. The reinforcement contingencies exerted robust control over smoking, and programmed smoking lapses produced few discernible effects. These results further illustrate the robust control that reinforcement contingencies can exert over cigarette smoking and suggest that any effects of lapses on the relative reinforcing effects of smoking are modest under conditions involving abstinence-contingent reinforcement contingencies.     

Cigarette Smoking in the Movies: The Influence of Product Placement on Attitudes Toward Smoking and Smokers1

Product placement in which actors use products on screen to promote those products, has received little research attention. The current research examines the effects of cigarette use in movies on various attitudes toward smoking and to ward the actor using the product. Participants (N= 120) viewed a 20‐min clip of Die Hard; half viewing a clip in which the lead character smoked, and half viewing a clip in which the lead character did not smoke. Nonsmokers who were low in need for cognition and who saw the lead character smoking reported more favorable attitudes about smoking. In addition smokers who saw the character smoking rated him as more appealing, while nonsmokers' ratings of the character were not affected by his smoking. Results are discussed in terms of the role of the placement of cigarettes in movies in the development of important smoking‐related attitudes.     

Effects of Case History versus Abstract Information on Health Attitudes and Behaviors1

Social psychological theory suggests that information presented in the form of a vivid case history is often more persuasive than information presented in abstract form, yet this idea has rarely been tested in the health promotion area. Three studies compared the effectiveness of health information presented in case history form with equivalent information presented in abstract form. The case history version had a greater impact on subjects' health attitudes and behavioral intentions in Studies 1 and 2. Study 3 investigated subjects at high risk for a serious health threat and found that the case history version was more persuasive than the abstract version among those who minimized the health threat. A six-weeks follow-up in Study 3 indicated that the case history version modestly enhanced long-term recall of the information but did not differentially affect subjects' actual health behaviors. The three studies provided partial support for the prediction that the case history version would arouse greater affect than the abstract version. Implications for health promotion programs are discussed.     

Smoking Prevention and the Concept of Risk1

Sixth-grade children in 22 schools received either a social-influences smoking-prevention program or routine health education. The social-influences program was designed to teach youth about peer, parent, and media influences affecting smoking onset and to provide them with skills in resisting these influences. Comparison schools were given no program, but were permitted to continue their usual provision of health education. Program impact was evaluated as a function of pretreatment risk of future smoking. Risk was defined with respect to both (a) the prevalence of social models who smoked and (b) previous smoking experience. Two-and-a-half-year results show program impact to vary with both kinds of risk. Smoking-experience risk interacted such that, at first, there was greater impact on children with experience, but on later follow-up the pattern reversed, with the greater treatment effects seen for those initially with limited experience. Social-models risk showed a direct relationship, with greater risk being associated with greater program impact. Implications both for evaluation research and prevention programs are discussed.     

Within-Family Effects of Smoking during Pregnancy on ADHD: the Importance of Phenotype

We sought to test within- and between- family associations of smoking during pregnancy (SDP) and attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms using a structured interview based on the conventional Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition (DSM-IV) symptoms and the Strengths and Weaknesses of ADHD-Symptoms and Normal-Behavior (SWAN) scale, which is a population based measure that grew out of the notion that an ADHD diagnosis exists on the extreme end of a continuum of normative behaviors and includes both above- and below- average performance on attention and activity. We used a sibling-comparison approach in a sample of 173 families including siblings aged 7–16 years (52% male) drawn from the state of Missouri, USA, wherein mothers smoked during one pregnancy but not the other. There was a within-family effect of smoking during pregnancy on SWAN hyperactivity/impulsivity and SWAN total ADHD behaviors. The associations between SDP and DSM-IV-based ADHD symptom dimensions as well as SWAN inattention were explained by familial confounds. These findings suggest that SDP exerts a potentially causal effect on increased ADHD hyperactive/impulsive behaviors and that this SDP effect is best captured when hyperactivity/impulsivity is assessed more normatively across the population, rather than specifically assessing problematic behaviors via DSM symptoms. Thus, any potentially causal effect of SDP on ADHD symptom dimensions may be restricted to hyperactive/impulsive behaviors rather than inattention, and normative, non-DSM-IV based behavioral measures may provide a more sensitive test of mechanisms of SDP-ADHD symptom associations, particularly in non-clinical samples.     

信息量和明显度对规则可获得性的影响

该研究探索了规则的信息量与明显度对规则可获得性的影响。采用改编后的2-4-6任务, 70名大学生参加了两个实验。实验1发现, 规则可获得性除了受到信息量的影响外, 还受到明显度的显著影响; 实验2增加了规则的探测, 发现信息量大、明显度高的规则更容易用语言陈述出来, 而信息量小、明显度低的规则更不容易陈述出来。实验结果启示：信息量大、明显度高的规则可能是一种外显规则, 而信息量小、明显度低的规则可能是一种内隐规则。初步提出了“计算和感知的双加工”模型。     

基于语境的预期推理构建的实验研究

两个实验用移动视窗技术,用目标句阅读时间和命名探测词两种指标来考察当文本中有两个情境模型时,读者是否会即时进行预期推理。结果表明,如果在支持性语境与引发推理的信息之间插入一个与支持性语境所描述的情境模型不同的,且与主人公目标有关的因果链上的情境模型的信息,则不管这个插入的情境模型在文本中的位置如何,也不管干扰信息的干扰水平高低,都会降低因果性预期推理在阅读中产生的可能性。     

Meat Label Information: Effects of Separate Versus Conjoint Presentation on Product Evaluation1

Consumers want more information about the food they consider buying. One way to provide such information is via food labeling, but not all label information can be used effectively. We tested how information on actual meat labels from a supermarket environment analysis was evaluated against a realistic new label when labels were seen separately vs. in a conjoint (simultaneous) presentation. Participants (M = 24 years; 49% women) evaluated how much money they would pay for identical meat products with different label information. Conjoint presentation of labels led to opposite product rankings compared to separate presentations in some conditions (preference‐reversal effect). We discuss the importance of food labels that provide transparent, evaluable information for supporting informed, responsible meat product decisions.