FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS AND TREATMENT OF ESCAPE-MAINTAINED AGGRESSION CORRELATED WITH SLEEP DEPRIVATION

Functional analysis identified the consequences that maintained aggressive behavior and the relationship between those consequences and sleep deprivation for an individual with severe mental retardation. Results showed that aggression was maintained by negative reinforcement contingencies (escape from demand) and that aggression was more severe when sleep deprivation was present. A multicomponent intervention resulted in reductions of aggression for up to 7 months.     

FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS AND TREATMENT OF EYE POKING

In four studies we analyzed the eye poking of a youth with profound disabilities. In Study 1, a functional analysis showed that eye poking occurred during the no-attention condition, but not during demand, attention, or recreation conditions. The analysis did not identify socially mediated variables involved in the maintenance of eye poking; rather, eye poking may have been maintained by consequences produced directly by the response. In Study 2 we had the student wear goggles to prevent potential reinforcement from finger—eye contact. The results of Study 2 indicated that eye-poking attempts were reduced when the student wore goggles. We then tested in Study 3 the effects of two alternative topographies of stimulation. Study 3 demonstrated that eye poking was reduced when a video game was provided as a competing source of visual stimulation, and that music was less effective in reducing eye poking. In Study 4, a contingency analysis using the video game was conducted in an attempt to (a) reduce the frequency of eye poking and (b) study whether the video game functioned as a reinforcer. The results of Study 4 demonstrated substantive reductions in the frequency of eye poking, and suggested that the video game served as a reinforcer.     

FURTHER EVALUATION OF ANTECEDENT SOCIAL EVENTS DURING FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS

The value of a reinforcer may change based on antecedent events, specifically the behavior of others (Bruzek & Thompson, 2007). In the current study, we examined the effects of manipulating the behavior of the therapist on problem behavior while all dimensions of reinforcement were held constant. Both participants' levels of problem behaviors increased as a function of the altered behavior of the therapist without direct manipulation of states of satiation or deprivation.     

EFFECTS OF EQUAL AND UNEQUAL REINFORCER DURATION DURING FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS

In the functional analysis described by Iwata, Dorsey, Slifer, Bauman, and Richman (1982/1994), reinforcer duration varied across conditions (e.g., brief attention vs. 30 s of escape); this may result in unequal exposure to the establishing operations for aberrant behavior. In this study, we compared the effects of unequal and equal reinforcer duration during a functional analysis. The results showed that reinforcer duration affects the rate of aberrant behavior and may potentially alter functional analysis interpretation.     

EFFECTS OF WARNING STIMULI FOR REINFORCER WITHDRAWAL AND TASK ONSET ON SELF-INJURY

Results of a functional analysis of self-injurious behavior (SIB) in a child with autism showed that her SIB was maintained by access to preferred objects and escape or avoidance of task demands. Extinction and noncontingent reinforcement treatments were supplemented by presenting a statement combined with a picture cue at 30-s intervals indicating that a preferred object would be removed or a task would be presented. Warning stimuli in combination with extinction and noncontingent reinforcement reduced SIB to acceptable levels. SIB rates remained comparatively high in a control condition consisting of a 2-min delay to onset of reinforcer removal or task demands.     

ANALYSIS OF THE REINFORCEMENT AND EXTINCTION COMPONENTS IN DRO CONTINGENCIES WITH SELF-INJURY

Previous research has shown that self-injurious behavior (SIB) maintained by positive reinforcement may be reduced under differential-reinforcement-of-other-behavior (DRO) contingencies. In this study, we conducted an analysis of the reinforcement and extinction components of DRO while treating the self-injury of 3 women with developmental disabilities. A functional analysis revealed that each subject's SIB was maintained by positive reinforcement in the form of attention. Subsequent reinforcer assessments identified preferred and nonpreferred stimuli for later use in conjunction with DRO. Results showed high rates of SIB for all 3 subjects during baseline, which persisted when DRO was implemented without the relevant extinction component (withholding of attention for SIB) for 2 of the subjects. Low rates of SIB were observed for all subjects when DRO plus extinction was implemented or when extinction was implemented alone, suggesting that extinction may be a critical component of DRO schedules.     

TREATMENT OF SELF-INJURY AND HAND MOUTHING FOLLOWING INCONCLUSIVE FUNCTIONAL ANALYSES

Numerous studies have used functional analyses to prescribe interventions for severe behavior disorders. The majority of these studies have focused on behavior that is clearly maintained by socially mediated reinforcement, such as contingent access to attention, tangibles, or escape from instructional demands. However, a significant proportion of functional analyses do not yield conclusive results. We examined interventions for 3 children with severe disabilities following inconclusive functional analyses. First, preferred stimuli were identified for each child via a stimulus preference assessment. Second, a functional analysis was conducted for 2 of the 3 children. High rates of aberrant behavior were seen even (if not especially) in no-interaction sessions. The 3rd child was observed for several consecutive no-interaction sessions; behavior persisted in this condition. Third, interventions based on environmental enrichment were analyzed in an analogue setting. For all of the children, environmental enrichment decreased aberrant behavior if preferred stimuli were used in the procedure. To obtain further reductions in aberrant behavior, explicit reinforcement of toy play was required for 2 children, and a brief (5-s) time-out was necessary with 1 child. Finally, effects of treatment carried over to the school or home environment following teacher or family training. Results are discussed in the context of basic reinforcement principles and future directions for research.     

EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS AND TREATMENT OF MULTIPLY CONTROLLED SELF-INJURY

A functional analysis of the self-injurious behavior (SIB) of 3 adults with profound developmental disabilities showed that each engaged in SIB in more than one assessment condition. Such outcomes may result from a failure to isolate the variable maintaining SIB, or they may reflect multiple sources of control over SIB. In order to identify more clearly the determinants of SIB, each subject was exposed to a series of treatments appropriate to one or both of the apparent functions of SIB. These treatments, applied sequentially on baselines appropriate to each behavioral function, identified the maintaining variables for SIB through differential outcomes across baselines. Results indicated that the SIB of 2 subjects was multiply controlled, confirming the outcomes of the functional analysis. However, the SIB of the 3rd subject was eliminated using a treatment designed for a single function, suggesting spurious results of the original assessment. Alternative interpretations of undifferentiated assessment data are discussed, as are analysis and treatment issues related to multiply determined behavior disorders.     

FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS AND TREATMENT OF EYE POKING WITH RESPONSE BLOCKING

A functional analysis of eye poking by a 4-year-old female with severe disabilities and visual impairments showed that high rates occurred in all conditions. We conducted a series of probes to identify the maintaining variable for eye poking following an undifferentiated functional analysis. Results showed that eye poking decreased only when we interrupted finger-eye contact by blocking the response.     

TOWARD A FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS OF PRIVATE VERBAL SELF-REGULATION

We developed a methodology, derived from the theoretical literatures on rule-governed behavior and private events, to experimentally investigate the relationship between covert verbal self-regulation and nonverbal behavior. The methodology was designed to assess whether (a) nonverbal behavior was under the control of covert rules and (b) verbal reports of these rules were functionally equivalent to the covert rules that control nonverbal behavior. The research was conducted in the context of teaching shopping skills to persons with mild intellectual disabilities using a self-instruction training format. In Phase 1, 4 participants were successfully taught to perform shopping skills using overt and covert self-instructions. The self-instructions were then blocked under overt and covert self-instruction conditions, which resulted in a reversal of shopping skills to baseline levels. This indicated that the overt and covert self-instructions might be controlling responding. In Phase 2, we demonstrated that the self-instructions, when used as external directives, produced successful shopping with 3 other participants. By demonstrating that self-rules can produce correct responding when used as external directives, we were more confident that it was the self-instructions and not other verbal or nonverbal behavior that controlled responding under overt, covert, and blocking conditions in Phase 1.     

ANTECEDENT INFLUENCES ON BEHAVIOR DISORDERS

The influence of antecedent events on behavior disorders has been relatively understudied by applied behavior analysts. This lack of research may be due to a focus on consequences as determinants of behavior and a historical disagreement on a conceptual framework for describing and interpreting antecedent variables. We suggest that antecedent influences can be described using terms derived from basic behavioral principles and that their functional properties can be adequately interpreted as discriminative and establishing operations. A set of studies on assessment and treatment of behavior disorders was selected for review based on their relevance to the topic of antecedent events. These studies were categorized as focusing on assessment of antecedent events, antecedent treatments for behavior disorders maintained by either positive or negative reinforcement, and special cases of antecedent events in behavior disorders. Some directions for future research on antecedent influences in the analysis and treatment of behavior disorders are discussed.     

FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS OF SEPARATE TOPOGRAPHIES OF ABERRANT BEHAVIOR

We conducted a functional analysis of distinct topographies of aberrant behavior displayed by 4 clients. We first analyzed the behaviors in an aggregate fashion and then separated the behaviors to formulate hypotheses about the maintaining variables for each behavior. The procedures were used in a two-phase experiment. During Phase 1, two extended functional analyses were completed, one in an inpatient unit and one in a special education classroom. During Phase 2, two brief functional analyses were completed in an outpatient clinic. Results indicated that hypotheses of separate functions for distinct behaviors can be generated using both extended and brief functional analyses when the results are graphed in the aggregate and are separated by response topography. The results also suggest that these methods can improve the accuracy of data interpretation and treatment selection.     

FUNCTIONAL COMMUNICATION TRAINING WITH AND WITHOUT EXTINCTION AND PUNISHMENT

Functional communication training has been reported to be a promising treatment for severe behavior problems. In this study, functional communication training alone and combined with extinction and/or punishment was evaluated for 4 clients with severe retardation, behavior problems, and communication deficits. The participants were inpatients on a hospital unit for treatment of severe behavior disorders. They received individualized interventions based on functional assessment that included reinforcement of a communication response with the same function as their destructive behavior. Results showed that for some patients, functional communication training was not sufficient to produce clinically significant reductions in destructive behavior, and the combination of training plus punishment produced the largest and most consistent reductions.     

EFFECTS OF SETTING EVENTS ON THE PROBLEM BEHAVIOR OF STUDENTS WITH SEVERE DISABILITIES

Two studies analyzed the effects of preceding setting events on the problem behavior of students with severe disabilities. Using ABAB withdrawal designs, the occurrence versus nonoccurrence of preceding setting events was analyzed in relation to the frequency of problem behavior. Data were collected throughout a student's school day, with interventions focusing upon the elimination of setting events that occurred before school. The results indicate that (a) the occurrence of preceding setting events was related to higher frequencies of problem behavior and (b) interventions designed to eliminate preceding setting events were consistently associated with low frequencies of problem behavior.     

EFFECTS OF PRESESSION ATTENTION ON THE FREQUENCY OF ATTENTION-MAINTAINED BEHAVIOR

The effect of prior attention was systematically manipulated to study its influence on rates of yelling and head hitting, both maintained by positive reinforcement in the form of attention. Higher levels of head hitting occurred in analogue attention conditions when the person was deprived of attention (no social interactions for 1 hr) prior to the analysis in comparison to when the person received high levels of attention (attention delivered on a fixed-time 30-s schedule for 1 hr) prior to the analysis.     

A FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS OF HAIR PULLING

We experimentally assessed the functions of hair pulling and hair manipulation of a 19-year-old woman (Kris) with moderate mental retardation and cerebral palsy. In Phase 1 a functional analysis revealed that Kris pulled and manipulated hair for the greatest amount of time in the alone condition, suggesting that the behaviors were maintained by some form of automatic reinforcement (Vaughan & Michael, 1982). In Phase 2 we assessed the nature of the sensory stimulation that maintained hair pulling by providing continuous access to previously pulled or cut hair and, thereafter, by having Kris wear a rubber glove. The results suggested that hair pulling was maintained by digital-tactile stimulation (automatic positive reinforcement). These findings are discussed, and recommendations for further analyses of automatically reinforced habit behaviors are provided.     

FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS OF INAPPROPRIATE SOCIAL INTERACTIONS IN STUDENTS WITH ASPERGER'S SYNDROME

We analyzed the inappropriate social interactions of 3 students with Asperger's syndrome whose behavior was maintained by social positive reinforcement. We tested whether inappropriate social behavior was sensitive to social positive reinforcement contingencies and whether such contingencies could be reversed to increase the probability of socially appropriate responding. Our results show that social positive reinforcers can be identified for inappropriate social interactions and that appropriate social behaviors can be sensitive to reinforcement contingency reversals.     

ACQUISITION AND FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS OF MANDING WITH AUTISTIC STUDENTS

Three autistic students were trained to request a specific object from an adult “supplier” with the sentence, “Give me —” and to deliver that object to another adult, the “director.” Subsequently, the degree to which the object offered by the supplier controlled the “Give me —” verbal response was assessed by delivering to the student an object other than the one requested. Despite knowing the names of all objects used in the experiment, students accepted and delivered to the director any object offered by the supplier regardless of its match with the requested object. After training to say “That's not it. Give me —” when nonrequested objects were offered, students responded differentially to requested and nonrequested objects, suggesting control of the “Give me —” response by the requested object, a characteristic of a mand. These results generalized across settings and objects. Results are discussed in terms of the training technique to establish manding and the functional analysis of the resulting verbal behavior.     

FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS AND TREATMENT OF SEVERE PICA

A two-phase functional analysis of a profoundly retarded 19-year-old male's pica facilitated the design of an effective intervention containing no aversive components. In the first analysis, frequent staff-client interaction resulted in 25% and 66% less pica than limited and no interaction, respectively. Paradoxical effects were obtained in the second analysis, where no protective helmet resulted in 38% and 26% less pica than the helmet with face shield and helmet without face shield, respectively. On the basis of these analyses, limited interaction and no helmet conditions were combined in an effective, staff-implemented treatment at a medium-sized institution.