Active learning: effects of core training design elements on self-regulatory processes, learning, and adaptability

This article describes a comprehensive examination of the cognitive, motivational, and emotional processes underlying active learning approaches; their effects on learning and transfer; and the core training design elements (exploration, training frame, emotion control) and individual differences (cognitive ability, trait goal orientation, trait anxiety) that shape these processes. Participants (N = 350) were trained to operate a complex, computer-based simulation. Exploratory learning and error-encouragement framing had a positive effect on adaptive transfer performance and interacted with cognitive ability and dispositional goal orientation to influence trainees' metacognition and state goal orientation. Trainees who received the emotion-control strategy had lower levels of state anxiety. Implications for development of an integrated theory of active learning, learner-centered design, and research extensions are discussed.     

A grammar of action generates predictions in skilled musicians

The present study investigates shared representations of syntactic knowledge in music and action. We examined whether expectancy violations in musical harmonic sequences are also perceived as violations of the movement sequences necessary to produce them. Pianists imitated silent videos showing one hand playing chord sequences on a muted keyboard. Results indicate that, despite the absence of auditory feedback, imitation of a chord is fastest when it is congruent with the preceding harmonic context. This suggests that the harmonic rules implied by observed actions induce expectations that influence action execution. As evidence that these predictions are derived at a high representational level, imitation was more accurate for harmonically incongruent chords than for congruent chords executed with unconventional fingering. The magnitude of the effects of context and goal prioritization increased with musical training. Thus, musical training may lead to a domain-general representation of musical grammar, i.e., to a grammar of action.     

Multiple Framing: Verbal,Facial, and Vocal Cues in Risky Choice

Verbal framing effects have been widely studied, but little is known about how people react to multiple framing cues in risk communication, where verbal messages are often accompanied by facial and vocal cues. We examined joint and differential effects of verbal, facial, and vocal framing on risk preference in hypothetical monetary and life–death situations. In the multiple framing condition with the factorial design (2 verbal frames × 2 vocal tones × 4 basic facial expressions × 2 task domains), each scenario was presented auditorily with a written message on a photo of the messenger's face. Compared with verbal framing effects resulting in preference reversal, multiple frames made risky choice more consistent and shifted risk preference without reversal. Moreover, a positive tone of voice increased risk‐seeking preference in women. When the valence of facial and vocal cues was incongruent with verbal frame, verbal framing effects were significant. In contrast, when the affect cues were congruent with verbal frame, framing effects disappeared. These results suggest that verbal framing is given higher priority when other affect cues are incongruent. Further analysis revealed that participants were more risk‐averse when positive affect cues (positive tone or facial expressions) were congruently paired with a positive verbal frame whereas participants were more risk‐seeking when positive affect cues were incongruent with the verbal frame. In contrast, for negative affect cues, congruency promoted risk‐seeking tendency whereas incongruency increased risk‐aversion. Overall, the results show that facial and vocal cues interact with verbal framing and significantly affect risk communication. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Task interest and actual performance: the moderating effects of assigned and adopted purpose goals

This research examined whether and which purpose goals moderate the relationship between task interest and actual performance and whether assigned goals have different effects (Study 1) than adopted goals (Study 2). Two studies were conducted using a full 2 X 2 design of the performance-mastery and approach-avoidance distinctions, plus control conditions. In the control conditions, that is, in a neutral purpose goal context, the expected positive relationship between initial task interest and actual performance was found. In a purpose goal context, this link held only for a congruent mastery-approach goal (either assigned or adopted). The gain in task interest found in a neutral purpose context was observed in the purpose goal conditions only when participants attained their purpose goals. It was concluded that having an incongruent purpose goal may undermine the positive effect of prior task interest on actual performance as well as on subsequent task interest.     

Prior knowledge and subtyping effects in children's category learning

Two experiments examined how 5- and 10-year-old children revise their category representations when exposed to exemplars that are congruent or incongruent with existing knowledge. During training children were presented with exemplars containing features that were congruent or incongruent with children's social stereotypes together with a stereotype-neutral feature. In the knowledge-subtyping condition this neutral feature predicted the stereotype-congruence of the other features. In the knowledge-standard condition the neutral feature was uncorrelated with stereotype-congruence. At test children made judgements about feature co-occurrence within the learned category. In each experiment these judgements were influenced by both stereotypical beliefs and exemplar observation. Stereotypical beliefs, however, had a greater influence on co-occurrence judgements in the knowledge-subtyping than in the standard conditions. In Experiment 2 these effects were shown to generalize to judgements about features that were not presented during training. These results challenge current models of knowledge-based categorization by showing that exemplar structure determines whether novel exemplar features are incorporated into category representations.     

Processes underlying congruent and incongruent facial reactions to emotional facial expressions

The present electromyographic study is a first step toward shedding light on the involvement of affective processes in congruent and incongruent facial reactions to facial expressions. Further, empathy was investigated as a potential mediator underlying the modulation of facial reactions to emotional faces in a competitive, a cooperative, and a neutral setting. Results revealed less congruent reactions to happy expressions and even incongruent reactions to sad and angry expressions in the competition condition, whereas virtually no differences between the neutral and the cooperation condition occurred. Effects on congruent reactions were found to be mediated by cognitive empathy, indicating that the state of empathy plays an important role in the situational modulation of congruent reactions. Further, incongruent reactions to sad and angry faces in a competition setting were mediated by the emotional reaction of joy, supporting the assumption that incongruent facial reactions are mainly based on affective processes. Additionally, strategic processes (specifically, the goal to create and maintain a smooth, harmonious interaction) were found to influence facial reactions while being in a cooperative mindset. Now, further studies are needed to test for the generalizability of these effects.     

Explicit vs. implicit emotional processing: The interaction between processing type and executive control

The current study examined whether the interaction between emotion and executive control (EC) is modulated by the processing type of the emotional information. Namely, whether the emotional information is explicitly processed, implicitly processed or passively viewed. In each trial, a negative or neutral picture preceded an arrow-flanker stimulus that was congruent or incongruent. Incongruent stimuli are known to recruit EC. Explicit processing of the pictures (Experiment 1a), which required responding to their emotional content, resulted in emotional interference for congruent but not for incongruent stimuli. Similar effects were shown for the passive viewing condition (Experiment 2). In contrast, implicit processing (Experiment 1b), which required responding to non-emotional content, resulted in emotional interference for both congruent and incongruent stimuli. Thus, our findings indicate that implicit emotional processing affects performance independently of EC recruitment. In contrast, explicit emotional processing and passive viewing of emotional pictures lead to reduced emotional interference when EC is recruited.     

Towards a cognitive model of distraction by auditory novelty: The role of involuntary attention capture and semantic processing

Unexpected auditory stimuli are potent distractors, able to break through selective attention and disrupt performance in an unrelated visual task. This study examined the processing fate of novel sounds by examining the extent to which their semantic content is analyzed and whether the outcome of this processing can impact on subsequent behavior. This issue was investigated across five laboratory experiments in which participants categorized visual left and right arrows while instructed to ignore irrelevant sounds. The results showed that auditory novels that were incongruent with the visual target (e.g., word “left” presented before a right arrow) disrupted performance over and above congruent novels (semantic effect) while both types of novels delayed responses in the visual task compared to a standard sound (novelty effect). No semantic effect was observed for congruent and incongruent standards, suggesting that novelty detection is necessary for involuntary semantic processing to unravel. While the novelty effect augmented as the difference between novels and the standard increased, the semantic effect was immune to this variation. Furthermore, the novelty effect decreased across the task while the semantic effect did not. A general cognitive framework is proposed encompassing these new findings and previous work in an attempt to account for the behavioral impact of irrelevant auditory novels on primary task performance.     

Repeated Self-Regulation and Asymmetric Hemispheric Activation

Numerous recent studies have investigated repeated self-regulation to uncover the processes involved in self-regulatory behavior over time. Results from most of these studies are consistent with a depletion process in which self-regulatory effectiveness declines over time due to resource depletion. The present research examined an additional factor that may also be involved in repeated self-regulatory exertion, namely, differential hemispheric activation. Five studies examined this issue, focusing on self-control tasks requiring avoidance or vigilance. Studies 1 to 3 indicated that these tasks resulted in greater relative right hemispheric activation. Studies 4 and 5 indicated that, consistent with this pattern of differential activation, initial vigilance self-control resulted in better subsequent performance on a spatial self-regulatory task but worse performance on a verbal self-regulatory task. These findings provide additional insight into the dynamics of self-regulatory behavior across tasks, suggesting the combination of tasks examined may influence the pattern of results obtained.     

Source consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus: the three dimensions of the Kelley ANOVA model in persuasion

Based on a conceptual analysis and existing research, the authors propose that the three source dimensions specified in the ANOVA model play similar roles in persuasion as other source characteristics (e.g., expertise). Two studies test assumptions derived from this approach regarding the effects of different combinations of consistency and consensus (Study 1) and distinctiveness and consensus (Study 2). Combinations resulting in contradictory (vs. similar) inferences regarding message validity should affect judgmental confidence and, consequently, affect message scrutiny. Study 1 shows that, as predicted, high consistency/low consensus and low consistency/high consensus (incongruent combinations) lead to higher desired confidence and more extensive message elaboration than high consistency/high consensus and low consistency/low consensus (congruent combinations). Similarly, Study 2 reveals heightened message scrutiny given incongruent (vs. congruent) combinations of distinctiveness and consensus. Results are discussed with respect to majority/minority influence processes and multiple source characteristics.     

The effects of surface detail on object categorization and naming

Three experiments are reported examining the effects of surface colour and brightness/texture gradients (photographic detail) on object classification and naming. Objects were drawn from classes with either structurally similar or structurally dissimilar exemplars. In Experiment 1a, object naming was facilitated by both congruent surface colour and photographic detail, with the effects of these two variables combining under-additively. In addition incongruent colour disrupted naming accuracy. These effects tended to be larger on objects from structurally similar classes than on objects from structurally dissimilar classes. Experiment 1b examined superordinate classification. There were again advantages due to congruent colour and photographic detail on responses to objects from both structurally similar and structurally dissimilar classes. Incongruent colour disrupted classification accuracy on structurally distinct but not structurally similar items. For structurally similar items, the advantages of congruent surface attributes on classification were smaller than on naming, but this was not the case for structurally dissimilar items. Experiment 2 examined subordinate classification of structurally similar objects. Now effects of congruent and incongruent colour, but not of photographic detail, were found. Experiment 3 showed that congruent and incongruent colour effects occur only when the colours occupy the internal surfaces of objects. The results suggest that surface details can affect object recognition and naming, depending upon: (1) the degree to which objects must be differentiated for a correct response to be made, and (2) the nature of the rate-limiting process determining performance.     

Members Matter in Team Training: Multilevel and Longitudinal Relationships Between Goal Orientation,Self‐Regulation,and Team Outcomes

Longitudinal data from 338 individuals across 64 teams in a simulation‐based team‐training context were used to examine the effects of dispositional goal orientation on self‐regulated learning (self‐efficacy and metacognition). Team goal orientation compositions, as reflected by average goal orientations of team members, were examined for moderating effects on these individual‐level relationships. Finally, individual‐level self‐regulation was investigated for its influence on multiple team‐level outcomes across time. Results showed generally positive effects of learning goal orientation and negative effects of avoid performance and prove performance goal orientations on rates of self‐regulation during team training. However, several of these individual‐level relationships were moderated by team goal orientation composition. The importance of self‐regulation in teams was displayed by results showing the average level of self‐regulation among a team's members over time was positively associated with team efficacy, team cooperation quality, and team decision making.     

Physical activity and cognitive function in a cross-section of younger and older community-dwelling individuals.

Previous reports have indicated a small, positive relationship between physical activity and cognition. However, the majority of research has focused on older adults, with few studies examining this relationship during earlier periods of the life span. This study examined the relationship of physical activity to cognition in a cross-section of 241 community-dwelling individuals 15-71 years of age with a task requiring variable amounts of executive control. Data were analyzed with multiple regression, which controlled for age, sex, and IQ. Participants reported their physical activity behavior and were tested for reaction time (RT) and response accuracy on congruent and incongruent conditions of a flanker task, which manipulates interference control. After controlling for confounding variables, an age-related slowing of RT was observed during both congruent and incongruent flanker conditions. However, physical activity was associated with faster RT during these conditions, regardless of age. Response accuracy findings indicated that increased physical activity was associated with better performance only during the incongruent condition for the older cohort. Findings suggest that physical activity may be beneficial to both general and selective aspects of cognition, particularly among older adults.     

A meta-analytic review of behavior modeling training

A meta-analysis of 117 studies evaluated the effects of behavior modeling training (BMT) on 6 training outcomes, across characteristics of training design. BMT effects were largest for learning outcomes, smaller for job behavior, and smaller still for results outcomes. Although BMT effects on declarative knowledge decayed over time, training effects on skills and job behavior remained stable or even increased. Skill development was greatest when learning points were used and presented as rule codes and when training time was longest. Transfer was greatest when mixed (negative and positive) models were presented, when practice included trainee-generated scenarios, when trainees were instructed to set goals, when trainees' superiors were also trained, and when rewards and sanctions were instituted in trainees' work environments.     

Counteractive evaluation: Asymmetric shifts in the implicit value of conflicting motivations

Four studies investigate asymmetric shifts in the implicit value of goal and temptation that pose a self-control dilemma. We find that accessible goals reduce the implicit positive valence of tempting alternatives, whereas accessible temptations increase the implicit positive valence of goal alternatives. We observe these asymmetric shifts across two self-regulatory domains: healthful food consumption (vs. indulgence) and the pursuit of academic excellence (vs. leisure). These findings suggest that two conflicting motivations can exert opposite influence on each other’s implicit evaluation.     

Age-related differences in automatic stimulus-response associations: Insights from young and older adults’ parity judgments

Young and older adults completed a parity judgment task (i.e., judging whether a target digit was odd or even) in which target numbers were preceded by masked prime numbers presented for 43 msec. Targets were either congruent (i.e., they had the same parity status as their primes) or incongruent (i.e., odd primes were paired with even targets, and even primes were paired with odd targets). Response times, percent errors, and event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded for all items to compare automatic stimulus—response association (ASRA) and congruence effects (i.e., better performance on congruent than on incongruent trials) across age groups. Two important original sets of findings were obtained in this sample of participants. First, both age groups showed ASRA effects in behavioral measures. Second, age-related differences were observed in amplitude, timing, and scalp distributions for each congruent and incongruent ERP. These findings have implications for furthering the understanding of ASRA effects and of general characteristics of cognitive processes affected (or not affected) by aging.     

Reaction Time Inconsistency in a Spatial Stroop Task: Age-Related Differences Through Childhood and Adulthood

ABSTRACT

Age-related differences in inconsistency of reaction time (RT) across the life span were examined on a task with differing levels of demand on executive control. A total of 546 participants, aged 5 to 76 years, completed a spatial Stroop task that permitted observations under three conditions (congruent, incongruent, and neutral) according to the correspondence between the required response (based on stimulus direction) and stimulus location. An interference effect was observed across all ages. Analyses of neutral condition data replicated previous research demonstrating RT inconsistency follows a U-shaped developmental curve across the life span. The relationship between age and inconsistency, however, depended on condition: inconsistency in the congruent condition was higher than inconsistency in both the neutral and incongruent conditions across middle-aged groups. Reaction time inconsistency may reflect processing efficiency that is maximal in young adulthood and may also be sensitive to fluctuations in performance that reflect momentarily highly efficient responding.     

AN EMPIRICAL EXAMINATION OF POSTTRAINING ON-THE-JOB SUPPLEMENTS FOR ENHANCING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF INTERPERSONAL SKILLS TRAINING

This study examined the impact of 2 posttraining on-the-job supplements to a training program focused on interpersonal skill development for newly hired managers—self-coaching and upward feedback. Utilizing a sample of 87 trainees from 75 units of a national restaurant chain, the impact of these supplements was assessed by examining posttraining performance across 4 training conditions in a quasi-experimental framework: (1) classroom training only, (2) classroom training with self-coaching, (3) classroom training with upward feedback, and (4) classroom training with self-coaching and upward feedback. The results demonstrated that both supplements are useful extensions to formal classroom training for enhancing trainees' interpersonal performance. These findings are discussed along with directions for future training effectiveness research.     

假字的Stroop效应:汉字部件对颜色命名的影响

通过变化左、右部件和上、中、下部件而制作的假字,采用两因素被试内设计,共80名大学生参加两个实验,考察汉字部件的Stroop效应。结果发现:(1)由"红"、"黄"两字不同部件所构成的假字分别影响对红、黄颜色的命名;(2)不同位置的部件所构成的假字,其产生的Stroop效应不同,即左部件比右部件,上部件比中、下部件产生的影响更明显。最后在平行分布式加工模型的范畴内讨论了其加工机制。     

Simultaneous and alternate combinations of action-observation and motor imagery involve a common lower-level sensorimotor process

Combining the motor simulation techniques of action observation and motor imagery (AOMI) is known to enhance motor performance more than when these techniques are presented in isolation. The present study examined the involvement of lower-level sensorimotor processes for the improvement in a dart-throwing task using AOMI. Novice participants (n = 70) were assessed on their dart-throwing both before and after a six-week AOMI training intervention that was contingent upon the random allocation of groups. Participants were randomly allocated into groups involving AOMI, where they observed either a congruent action, incongruent action or fixation cross (control), while simultaneously or alternately imagining the dart-throwing task. Dart-throwing performance was significantly more improved for the simultaneous- and alternate-congruent groups compared to the simultaneous-fixation and control groups. There was no indication of improvement by any of the other groups. This improvement appeared to coincide with lower EMG activity at the agonist and antagonist muscles, which would indicate greater movement efficiency. The findings suggest that AOMI involves a common lower-level sensorimotor process, which can lead to motor facilitation or interference, dependent upon whether the simulation techniques are congruent or incongruent with each other, respectively. What's more, this feature does not appear to differ as a function of the structure of delivery (i.e., simultaneous vs. alternate).