Sex differences in personality and expectancy

It has been shown that women have a lower expectancy than men before examinations, without there being any differences in past performance levels or in work spent in exam preparations. It was proposed that these sex differences in expectancy could be understood as an expression of differences in instrumental/expressive personality dispositions. In a group of undergraduate psychology students tested a short time before examination, scores on a composite index called “Strong” were found to account for a significant but small amount of variance in expectancy estimates. The relationship between expectancy and Strong was also found to depend on the level of another composite index called “Warm.” A fairly high correlation between expectancy and Strong was thus found for Ss describing themselves as warm. For Ss describing themselves as not very warm, no relationship between expectancy and Strong was found. When differences in personality traits were controlled, however, women were still found to have a lower expectancy than men. Expectancy was found to be a more accurate predictor of actual grades for Ss with high scores on instrumental traits than for Ss with low scores.     

Body Image Scores and Varieties of Consciousness

Dreams, depersonalization experiences, daydreams, and autobiographies were compared in regard to barrier, penetration, and neutral imagery and action scores. Significant differences were found between these varieties of consciousness on all three scores. Only barrier scores showed significant differences between males and females.     

General Newsletter

Low scores often have been ignored in validity research on the MMPI, yet these statistically significant deviations from the norm may be valuable sources of information and occur frequently enough to merit further investigation. The meaning of low scores on the MMPI-2 was examined for 822 male-female partner pairs in the MMPI-2 restandardization sample. Subjects were divided by MMPI-2 scale scores into high-, medium-, and low-score groups. Analyses of variance were performed with score level as the independent variable and partner ratings as dependent variables. Significant differences were found between the low- and medium-score groups with low scorers rated as better adjusted than medium scorers. More significant differences were found between the high-score and medium-score groups than between the low-score and medium-score groups; this suggested that high scores on MMPI-2 clinical scales are associated with poorer adjustment.     

Disposition towards hallucination,gender and EPQ scores: a brief report

The Launay-Slade Hallucination Scale (LSHS-A) and the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) were given to 204 male and female undergraduate students. Female students scored significantly higher than male students on the LSHS-A. No relationship was found between the P, E or L scales of the EPQ and the LSHS-A. However, a significant positive correlation was found between the N scores on the EPQ and scores on the LSHS-A. This correlation could not be accounted for by sex differences on the N scale.     

Effects of training intensity on observers' ratings of anxiety, social skills, and alcohol-specific coping skills

Few studies have addressed the amount of training needed to obtain reliable ratings in behavioral observation data. The current study examined the effects of differing intensities of frame-of-reference (FOR) rater training on observers' ratings of anxiety, social skills, and alcohol-specific coping skills in community volunteers with and without social anxiety and alcohol use disorders. Interrater reliability was assessed by comparing three training conditions (no-training, moderate FOR, and intensive FOR) on discrepancies between raters'scores and the strength of association between raters'scoring patterns. The discrepancies between raters' scores were significantly larger in the control condition than in the intensive and moderate training conditions. Generally, small and nonsignificant differences were found between intensive and moderate training's discrepancy scores. Strength of association results showed significantly lower correlations in the control group compared to the intensive group. However, these correlational results showed less consistent differences between the moderate and other training conditions; differences when found were in the expected directions. Study findings suggest that differing training intensities can affect rating scores and that interrater reliability may be meaningfully assessed through multiple methods.     

Relationship Between Emotional Intelligence and Transformational Leadership Style: A Gender Comparison

This study examined the predictive relationship between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership style. The researchers also wanted to determine gender differences in the relationship between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership style, as well as the gender differences in the emotional intelligence scores and transformational leadership style of managers. A significant predictive relationship (p < .05) was found between transformational leadership style and emotional intelligence. No significant interaction (p < .05) was found between gender and emotional intelligence while predicting transformational leadership style. A significant difference (p < .05) was found in the emotional intelligence of scores of male and female managers. Lastly, no significant difference (p > .05) was found in the transformational leadership scores of male and female managers.     

Individual differences in empathizing and systemizing in Japanese children: Psychometric properties of the children's versions of the Empathy Quotient (EQ) and Systemizing Quotient (SQ)

In the present study, children's versions of the Empathy Quotient (EQ‐C) and the Systemizing Quotient (SQ‐C) were administered to 626 Japanese children (313 boys, 313 girls) aged 6–15 years. The psychometric properties of both quotients were found to be satisfactory. Sex differences were found in the scores for both quotients. The girls scored higher than the boys on the EQ‐C, while the boys scored higher than the girls on the SQ‐C. Proportions of cognitive styles, which were determined by differences between the standardized scores of the EQ‐C and SQ‐C, showed clear sex differences. The proportion of participants whose cognitive style was classified as empathizing‐dominant was greater for the girls, while the proportion of participants classified as systemizing‐dominant was greater for the boys. No developmental changes were found in either the scores for the EQ‐C and SQ‐C or the proportions of the cognitive styles.     

Emotional well-being of college students in health courses with and without an exercise component

This study was designed to examine the effects of exercise on indices of emotional well-being of 584 college students enrolled in either a lecture-only health course or one of six health-fitness courses, each using a different mode of exercise including cross-training, aerobics, yoga, circuit weight training, swimming, and walk/jog. Each participant completed the Self-perception Profile for College Students developed by Neeman and Harter. Analysis yielded significant differences on five indices of emotional well-being (Global Self-worth, Appearance, Romantic Relationships, Social Acceptance, and Athletic Competence) between pre- and posttest scores of participants enrolled in the health-fitness courses, while no differences were found between pre-and posttest scores of participants enrolled in the lecture-only health course. Of the seven subscales examined, a significant interaction effect was found between sex/time and Romantic Relationships/Athletic Competence, with women reporting greater gains than men.     

Adolescent identity formation: a Swedish study of identity status using the EOM-EIS-II

The aim of this study was to examine ego identity status among Swedish adolescents using the EOM-EIS-II. Identity status scores and distributions were examined for 222 (108 female, 114 male) Swedish high school students. Identity status differences were found between genders. There was a greater likelihood of female adolescents being categorized as moratoriums than were males, and there was a greater likelihood of males being categorized as diffusions than were females. Statistically significant differences were found between genders on the following subscales: moratorium, foreclosure, and diffusion. No statistically significant differences were found between females and males on the identity achievement subscale. To achieve a preliminary construct validation of the results from the EOM-EIS-II, four of the 222 participants were also assessed using Marcia's identity status interview. A fairly good accordance between the interview assessment of identity status and the EOM-EIS-II assessment were found. Interview results showed differences between the interviewers on each subscale (IA, M, F, and D). The same differences were detected on three of four subscales when assessing these individuals' identity statuses using the EOM-EIS-II.     

Romanticism as a function of age, sex, and ethnicity

This study examined the association between romanticism (operationalized as mean score on the Romantic Beliefs Scale) and age, sex, and ethnicity in a large community sample (N = 436). Age was negatively correlated with romanticism scores; as age increased, romanticism scores decreased. No sex differences were found; men and women had similar, moderate scores. Although ethnicity largely was unrelated to romanticism, Asian/Pacific Islander participants were significantly more romantic than were African-American participants.     

Conformity behavior of Afrikaans- and English-speaking adolescents in South Africa.

The conformity behaviors of 50 Afrikaans- and 48 English-speaking early adolescents (ages 12 to 14 years) were measured by a modified Asch experiment and then compared. The effects of sex, self-concept (measured by the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale) and certain personality factors (measured by the High School Personality Questionnaire) were also examined. No significant differences between the conformity scores of the two groups were found, but boys and girls significantly differed with regard to their conformity scores. Although subjects with low self-concept scores did not have higher conformity scores than those with high self-concept scores, a significant difference between the self-concept scores of Afrikaans- and English-speaking adolescents was demonstrated. Low but significant correlations were found between personality factors (A, J, and Q2) and conformity scores.     

Effects of telic dominance and metamotivational state on squash task performance

Measures of telic dominance and metamotivational state were obtained from 40 volunteer males grouped on the basis of their playing ability, before and after the performance of squash tasks. Utilising a mixed-blocks design, which controlled for order of task, subjects were required to perform two squash tasks of differing difficulty. Significant differences between groups on performance were obtained, confirming the ability classification, but no significant differences in telic dominance were found. Significant increases in mood response in the telic direction were found on pre- and posttask scores. A significant decrease in discrepancy scores (preferred arousal minus felt arousal) obtained pre- and posttask was noted, together with a significant interaction between skill level and in arousal discrepancy pre- and posttask. In all cases trends were least for the most skilled group.     

Building Solutions in Youth: Evaluation of the Human–Animal Resilience Therapy Intervention

The effectiveness of the human-animal resilience therapy (HART) intervention was examined using a randomized comparison group design with youth ages 10–18 (n = 29). Paired samples t-test analyses revealed statistically significant differences between pretest and posttest scores for anxiety, depression, and disruptive behavior inventories for participants in both the treatment and comparison groups. No significant differences were found for the self-concept or anger inventories. An analysis of variance on gain scores of the treatment and comparison groups revealed no between group differences. The implications of the findings are discussed.     

Conformity Behavior of Afrikaans-and English-Speaking Adolescents in South Africa

Abstract

The conformity behaviors of 50 Afrikaans- and 48 English-speaking early adolescents (ages 12 to 14 years) were measured by a modified Asch experiment and then compared. The effects of sex, self-concept (measured by the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale) and certain personality factors (measured by the High School Personality Questionnaire) were also examined. No significant differences between the conformity scores of the two groups were found, but boys and girls significantly differed with regard to their conformity scores. Although subjects with low self-concept scores did not have higher conformity scores than those with high self-concept scores, a significant difference between the self-concept scores of Afrikaans-and English-speaking adolescents was demonstrated. Low but significant correlations were found between personality factors (A, J, and Q2) and conformity scores.     

Voice Identification Over the Telephone1

Following a telephone survey investigating attitudes toward police and frequency of personal victimization. 177 citizens between the ages of 18 and 88 years participated without forewarning in a field study on telephone voice identification. Identification accuracy (hits) improved with longer conversation durations (an average duration of 7.8 min compared to conversation durations of 3.2 min and 4.3 min. on average), but the false alarm rate also reliably increased with longer durations in a target-present lineup. False alarms were consistently high (overall M= .48) in the target-absent lineup. No significant differences were found in hit scores or false alarm scores over a two to three day retention interval. No significant correlation was found between confidence scores and accuracy of performance on the target-present lineup (r= .10). but a significant correlation (r= 36) was found on the target-absent lineup.     

Flexibility and Originality in Children's Divergent Thinking

Previous research on the ideational process indicates that original ideas increase in frequency as an examinee works through an open-ended task. In the present investigation, ideational flexibility was evaluated to determine if ideas also become more varied and diverse. Additionally, the relationship of intelligence (IQ) with order effects of both originality and flexibility was investigated. Tests of verbal and figural divergent thinking were administered to 80 intermediate school children. The midpoint of each individual's ideational set was found, and the flexibility and originality scores of each half of the set were compared. Results indicated that flexibility and originality scores were higher in the second half than the first half of the ideational set, but there were significant differences between high- and low-originality subjects and differences between the verbal and the figural tests. The order effect was unrelated to the IQ scores of the subjects. Suggestions are made to integrate ideational flexibility into existing theories of divergent ideation.     

Gender and Grade Differences in Latent Ability Variables

Scores in ability tests administered to students in grades 4–9 were simultaneously factor-analyzed within twelve gender by grade groups. Gender and grade differences in means and variances were studied for five latent ability factors according to a hierarchical model and compared with means and variances in the observed scores.
Girls had higher means than boys in a general ability factor (G), in a residual general speed factor (Gs') and in a residual factor of numerical facility (N'). Boys were higher in a residual vocabulary factor (V') and most of all in a residual spatial visualization factor (Vz'). Boys had larger variances than girls in N' and Gs'. In general the differences in means and variances were in the same direction for the closest corresponding observed scores, but some striking discrepancies between latent and observed scores were found. As a rule, the discrepancies were due to the complexity of the tests where one factor could compensate for another.
In the discussion it was pointed out that some of the differences found were likely to have changed between the testing in the late 1950s and the present. Nevertheless the demonstration of the divergence between analyses of latent vs. observed scores remains valid.     

Individual differences in distancing responses to women on a photo choice task

A heterogeneous sample of adult women and men responded to a Photo Choice Task (PCT) in which they were asked to make 24 choices between two persons for a hypothetical interaction; eight of the choices were between a woman and a man. Participants also responded to a measure of adherence to Sex Role Stereotypes and to a measure of Adversarial Sexual Beliefs. On the eight choices between a woman and a man on the PCT, men over 30 and younger than 30 chose women below chance level. Women over 30 made other-gender and same-gender choices that did not differ from chance, but the women under 30 chose women over men reliably more than chance. Small but significant positive correlations were found among the scores on the PCT and the belief measures; for the total sample, the greater the choice of men over women for hypothetical interactions, the greater the agreement with sex role stereotypes and with adversarial sexual beliefs. An examination of mean differences in belief scores among groups of persons whose PCT scores (choice of men over women) were low, medium, and high revealed that men who were more likely to turn away from women in hypothetical situations were also more likely to adhere to stereotyped beliefs about sex roles and to view relationships between women and men as adversarial. This same pattern of individual differences was found among women but, for women, only the relationship between PCT scores and sex role stereotyping was significant.     

Sex-related differences in spatial ability in a group of South African students

Many recent studies have reported a convergence in the scores of males and females on spatial tests; however, these studies also indicate different amounts of convergence. There are indications that spatial differences continue to exist. It was decided to study such differences in spatial ability on two different tests for two groups of South African first-year university students (ns = 60), one from arts and one from the sciences. In all comparisons statistically significant differences were found between the sexes.