Examination of efficacious,efficient, and socially valid error‐correction procedures to teach sight words and prepositions to children with autism spectrum disorder

Prior research shows that learners have idiosyncratic responses to error‐correction procedures during instruction. Thus, assessments that identify error‐correction strategies to include in instruction can aid practitioners in selecting individualized, efficacious, and efficient interventions. The current investigation conducted an assessment to compare 5 error‐correction procedures that have been evaluated in the extant literature and are common in instructional practice for children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Results showed that the assessment identified efficacious and efficient error‐correction procedures for all participants, and 1 procedure was efficient for 4 of the 5 participants. To examine the social validity of error‐correction procedures, participants selected among efficacious and efficient interventions in a concurrent‐chains assessment. We discuss the results in relation to prior research on error‐correction procedures and current instructional practices for learners with ASD.     

Instructional planning: information collected by school psychologists vs. information considered useful by teachers

A limited national sample of 49 school psychologists and 30 regular education teachers provided information on assessment for the purpose of instructional planning. School psychologists listed the types of information they most often collected for this purpose and teachers listed the types of information considered most useful for this purpose. While some indications of agreement were found between school psychologists and teachers, there were also several inconsistencies in the views of the two groups regarding assessment procedures for instructional planning. The findings are discussed in light of empirical evidence on the contribution of various types of assessment data to instructional planning.     

Leveraging technology: A multi-component personalized system of instruction to teach sight words

Technology-enabled personalized systems of instruction (PSI) could streamline resource-intensive instructional strategies, potentially easing their delivery and accelerating student learning. This study evaluated the effectiveness and efficiency of a PSI that incorporated adaptive assessment, incremental rehearsal, and peer-assisted learning to teach sight words. Participants in grades 1–3 were randomly assigned to either a control condition or treatment condition. In the treatment condition, participants engaged in the PSI in dyads, working at their instructional level with minimal adult supervision. Compared to the control condition, target learners engaging in the PSI acquired previously unknown sight words, then maintained and generalized the words 30 days post-intervention with a moderate main effect (β = 0.28). On average, participants rated the PSI as positive or very positive. The potential for PSIs to make instructional activities more efficient, effective, and individualized is discussed.     

Effects of Comparing Contrasting Cases on Learning From Subsequent Explanations

In an experiment, prior to processing instructional explanations N = 75 students received either (a) contrasting cases plus comparison prompts, (b) contrasting cases plus provided comparisons (i.e., model answers to the comparison prompts), or (c) no preparation intervention. We found that the learners with preparation intervention learned more and with a higher degree of efficiency, perceived less extraneous load, and experienced a higher feeling of smooth automatic running while they processed the explanations than the learners without a preparation intervention. These findings suggest that comparing contrasting cases serves a focusing function. Furthermore, we found that the learners in the provided comparisons condition acquired more conceptual knowledge from the explanations than the learners in the prompted comparisons condition. This result indicates that providing high amounts of instructional guidance while learners compare contrasting cases can have an added value in comparison to providing comparison prompts concerning the resulting preparation for future learning.     

STRUGGLING LITERACY LEARNERS BENEFIT FROM LIFETIME LITERACY EFFORTS

Becoming a lifetime reader is predicated on developing a love of reading. Children with special needs and their less challenged peers both deserve equity and equality of educational opportunities that promote the lifetime reading habit. To support this direction, a strong commitment is needed from teachers and administrators, whose collective energy is aimed at determining children's attitude toward reading, immersing learners in different texts, engaging students in choosing resources and in reading them during school time, and helping children use skills and strategies in meaningful contexts. Although this perspective is beneficial for all learners, those who experience difficulty with reading profit from scaffolds that support the same instructional direction intended for learners who do not.     

Behavior analysis in instructional design: A functional typology of verbal tasks

This paper describes and illustrates a typology of verbal instructional tasks for advanced classroom instruction and inservice training. The typology is based upon functional definitions of elementary and conceptual behavior, and incorporates the kinds of goals and objectives that surveys and research have shown to be important for experienced learners. The typology's metastructure is B. F. Skinner's (1957) verbal behavior classification system. This paper describes Skinner's system as a context for understanding and selecting instructional tasks for experienced learners. This paper also discusses rate of response as an important dimension of proficiency or mastery, and procedures for selecting proficiency criteria of tasks in the typology are also described. Results of the first of a series of validation studies indicated that high agreement between typology designer and subjects' classification of tasks can be attained after a short training session. The typology is discussed as a vehicle for standardizing instructional research and practice, and as a basis for research on transfer of control across classes of verbal behavior. Implications for research on building fluency of adult performance, and efficiency in instructional design are also discussed.     

Measuring incremental changes in word knowledge: Experimental validation and implications for learning and assessment

The goal of this study was to test a new technique for assessing vocabulary development. This technique is based on an algorithm for scoring the accuracy of word definitions using a continuous scale (Collins-Thompson & Callan, 2007). In an experiment with adult learners, target words were presented in six different sentence contexts, and the number of informative versus misleading contexts was systematically manipulated. Participants generated a target definition after each sentence, and the definition-scoring algorithm was used to assess the degree of accuracy on each trial. We observed incremental improvements in definition accuracy across trials. Moreover, learning curves were sensitive to the proportion of misleading contexts, the use of spaced versus massed practice, and individual differences, demonstrating the utility of this procedure for capturing specific experimental effects on the trajectory of word learning. We discuss the implications of these results for measurement of meaning, vocabulary assessment, and instructional design.     

Understanding Oral Learners

A five‐year research project of seminary students from various cultural backgrounds revealed that the slight majority of contemporary seminary students studied are oral learners. Oral learners learn best and have their lives most transformed when professors utilize oral teaching and assessment methods. After explaining several preferences of oral learners, suggestions for effective teaching are provided in this article in order to improve both teaching and assessment of oral learners. Applications are provided for face‐to‐face and online learning contexts.     

Effect of Color Coding on Visually Oriented Tests With Students of Different Cognitive Styles

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects that differentially coded (black and white and color) illustrations had on students (N = 117) who were classified as field dependent, field neutral, or field independent as a result of their performance on the visually oriented Group Embedded Figures Test (Witkin, Olt-man, Rashin, & Karp, 1971). Students were randomly assigned to two instructional treatments complemented by illustrations (black and white and colored). After receiving their respective treatments, students reviewed two visually oriented criterion tests. Two-way analyses of variance conducted on achievement scores indicated that field independents scored significantly higher than did field dependents on both visual tests, and differences between field-dependent and field-independent learners who received the color-coded treatments on the visual identification test were insignificant. Results indicate that field dependency is an important instructional variable and that for some types of learning objectives the process of color coding instructional materials may reduce achievement differences attributed to differences in cognitive style.     

Interactive elements for dynamically linked multiple representations in computer simulations

Seventy‐three students learned central concepts about signal detection theory with an introductory text followed by a computer simulation. Each learner was randomly assigned to one of the three treatment groups: text boxes, scrollbars or drag and drop opportunities to modify parameters in the simulation. These three interactive elements were used for linking the different multiple representations in the simulation dynamically. Retention and transfer test, evaluation of the instructional material as well as time spent with the simulation were used as dependent measures. Learners who had to use scrollbars or had to modify parameters per drag and drop performed better on transfer, but not on retention, than did learners who had to use text boxes. Learners who had to modify parameters per drag and drop also evaluated the instructional material better than did learners who had to use text boxes. These results are consistent with the split‐attention principle. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

线索在多媒体学习中的作用

线索在多媒体学习中作为一种重要的教学设计形式,具有引导注意、组织和整合信息的功能。综述已有研究发现,线索具有引导学习者加工特定位置信息、忽视无关信息干扰的功能;在特定条件下帮助学习者整合图-文信息,并且提高学习者的学习效果;但对于线索信息组织功能尚缺少充分而有力的证据。关于线索对学习效果的影响,大部分研究证实线索能够促进学习。但是由于线索的多样性以及学习材料的复杂性,线索能否有效地提高学习效果仍然存在争议。从认知负荷理论视角综述发现,线索加入并没有明显降低学习者感知到的主观认知负荷;从知觉加工视角而言,线索作为突显的刺激会吸引学习者的注意,从而简化学习者在知觉加工阶段的视觉搜索。未来研究仍然需要关注以下问题:(1)线索是否真的被学习者所注意和加工?(2)重视学习材料多样性比较和不同线索类型差异探讨,(3)关注学习者经验影响,(4)如何在教学设计上保证线索的有效性。     

INTERSPERSED REQUESTS: A NONAVERSIVE PROCEDURE FOR REDUCING AGGRESSION AND SELF-INJURY DURING INSTRUCTION

Interspersed requests are simple commands, with a high likelihood of being followed correctly, that are interspersed among instructional trials to increase the probability that a learner will attempt to perform new or difficult tasks without engaging in aggression or self-injurious behavior. This report presents two assessments of the effect of interspersed requests on aggression and self-injury during instruction. The participants were individuals with severe mental retardation who used aggression and self-injury to avoid difficult instructional situations. Results from both studies indicate that interspersed requests were effective at increasing the responsiveness of the learners to instructions and reducing levels of aggression and self-injury.     

On the use of fluency training in the behavioral treatment of autism: a commentary

The substantial demand for behavior-analytic treatment of early childhood autism has been associated with rapid dissemination of treatment procedures to practitioners and caregivers. This level of demand could plausibly induce premature dissemination of treatments that do not yet have sufficient empirical support. We argue that this might have happened with the use of fluency training for learners with autism and identify four areas of research that are necessary to ensure that dissemination efforts are better matched to the available empirical support for this instructional strategy.     

认知负荷视角下的知识反转效应

知识反转效应研究始于20世纪90年代中期, 在认知负荷的框架下对学习者先备知识与教学方法有效性之间的交互作用进行研究, 其研究范式起源于能力倾向与教学处置交互作用模型。认知负荷理论认为知识反转效应的产生是由于高先备知识者接受冗余教学而产生了额外的认知负荷, 动机理论却认为, 高先备知识者由于冗余的认知加工而产生的负荷可能是一种动机资源负荷。在优化外在认知负荷与相关认知负荷的教学设计中发现了大量知识反转效应的实验证据, 其教学的启示意义在于需要随着学习者领域知识的不断变化适宜性地调整教学方法。未来需要在完善研究方法、拓展研究领域的基础上, 整合研究成果以建立效应发生与发展的理论模型。     

Partial Verbal Redundancy in Multimedia Presentations for Writing Strategy Instruction

Multimedia instructional materials require learners to select, organize, and integrate information across multiple modalities. To facilitate these comprehension processes, a variety of multimedia design principles have been proposed. This study further explores the redundancy principle by manipulating the degree of partial redundancy between written and narrated content. Ninety high school students learned about cohesion via animated lesson videos from the Writing Pal intelligent tutoring system. Videos were crafted such that narrated and onscreen written content overlapped by 10%, 26%, or 50%. Across conditions, students gained significantly in their knowledge of cohesion‐building strategies and the effects of cohesion on writing quality. However, degree of redundancy did not influence learning gains. Additionally, although more‐skilled readers outperformed less‐skilled readers, reading skill did not interact with the degree of redundancy. These results provide evidence that a broad range of partially redundant multimedia materials may be viable instructional tools that benefit diverse learners. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

An analysis of the value of token reinforcement using a multiple-schedule assessment

Token systems are widely used in clinical settings, necessitating the development of methods to evaluate the reinforcing value of these systems. In the current paper, we replicated the use of a multiple-schedule reinforcer assessment (MSA; Smaby, MacDonald, Ahearn, & Dube, 2007) to evaluate the components of a token economy system for 4 learners with autism. Token systems had reinforcing value similar to primary reinforcers for 2 of the 4 learners, but resulted in lower rates of responding than primary reinforcers for the other 2 learners. Differentiated responding across learners may warrant variation in clinical recommendations on the use of tokens. The results of this study support formal assessment of token system effectiveness, and the MSA procedure provides an efficient method by which to conduct such assessments.     

Individual differences in the preference for worked examples: Lessons from an application of dispositional learning analytics

Worked-examples have been established as an effective instructional format in problem-solving practices. However, less is known about variations in the use of worked examples across individuals at different stages in their learning process in student-centred learning contexts. This study investigates different profiles of students' learning behaviours based on clustering learning dispositions, prior knowledge, and the choice of feedback strategies in a naturalistic setting. The study was conducted on 1,072 students over an 8-week long introductory mathematics course in a blended instructional format. While practising exercises in a digital learning environment, students can opt for tutored problem solving, untutored problem solving, or call worked examples. The results indicated six distinct profiles of learners regarding their feedback preferences in different learning phases. Finally, we investigated antecedents and consequences of these profiles and investigated the adequacy of used feedback strategies concerning ‘help-abuse’. This research indicates that the use of instructional scaffolds as worked-examples or hints and the efficiency of that use differs from student to student, making the attempt to find patterns at an overall level a hazardous endeavour.     

On Pedagogy of Personality Assessment: Application of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives

In this article, Bloom's (1956 Bloom, B. (Ed.), Englehart, M. D., Furst, E. J., Hill, W. H., &; Krathwohl, D. R. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: Handbook 1. Cognitive domain. White Plains, NY: Longman. [Google Scholar]) Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, a pedagogical tool that can help instructors of personality assessment to develop effective and student-centered instructional design, is discussed. Bloom's taxonomy provides a progressive sequence of educational objectives used for lesson planning, needs assessment, and measurement of learning outcomes. The taxonomy comprises 6 categories of objectives that are ordered hierarchically, from the simplest to the most advanced. The levels are knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. I explain how the taxonomy can be applied to the teaching of personality assessment and discuss the implications for assessment pedagogy. I provide examples of effective instructional activities, overview the signs of learners at each level, and highlight typical errors that students make in their oral and written work. Strategies to help learners progress to higher order thinking are also addressed.     

Expertise reversal effect in a pen-tablet-based learning environment: The role of learningcentered emotions in the interplay between learner expertise and task complexity

The study investigated interactions between learner expertise and task complexity evaluated from both cognitive and affective perspectives. One hundred and seventy-three students, both novices and advanced learners, were asked to learn Japanese writing in a pen-tablet-based digital learning environment with varying task complexity levels. Cognitive load and learning-centred emotions were measured at intervals during learning, while writing performance was monitored by runtime tracking. Results indicated that while advanced learners performed better than novices across the range of task complexity, the moderate task complexity was shown to be superior in enhancing performance for both levels of expertise. Results for learning-centred emotions showed that advanced learners reported lower enjoyment and higher frustration when completing the low complexity task, whereas the moderately complex task was reported to be the most enjoyable and less frustrating for these learners. No significant difference in emotions was found across levels of task complexity for novices. Finally, a constructed composite indicator of cognitive-affective efficiency of instructional conditions showed a significant interaction between levels of learner expertise and task complexity primarily caused by affective factors.