Effects of gender composition and group status differences on member perceptions of group developmental patterns,effectiveness, and productivity

This field study sought to ascertain whether all female or female dominated work groups, all male or male dominated work groups, and mixed sex work groups varied systematically in member perceptions of group developmental patterns, effectiveness, and productivity. The study also sought to determine whether high versus low status groups differed significantly on these variables. One hundred seventy-one work groups participated in the study. The results suggested that member perceptions of group functioning were more similar than different. Where significant differences were noted, group status, as opposed to gender composition, seemed to account for these differences in perception.     

儿童对所属同伴团体的选择和适应

为探讨儿童所属非正式同伴团体的选择和适应过程,选择469名小3、初1学生参加了为期2年的追踪研究.儿童同伴团体和学校适应(社会行为、社会适应、学习适应)的资料取自包含同伴评定、教师评定和学校记录多种渠道.研究发现,(1)儿童选择与自己在学校适应方面相似的同伴组成同伴团体;(2)同伴团体不仅在成员构成还是在学校适应的团体特征上具有中等程度的稳定性;(3)儿童在初测时所属同伴团体的社会能力越强、社交性越高、学业成绩越优异,则其两年后在这些方面的表现也越好,如果所属同伴团体存在同伴拒绝或学业问题,则儿童在两年后被同伴拒绝和出现学业问题的可能性也越大.     

The Effect of the Sexual Composition of a Group on Discrimination Against Women and Sex-Role Attitudes

This study examined discrimination against women and endorsement of sex-role attitudes as a function of sex composition of group and sex of subject. Undergraduates (116 female and 55 male) were placed in mixed-sex or all-women groups and administered a modification of the journal articles used by Goldberg (1968) and a Sex-Role Attitude Questionnaire developed by the author. Both females and males in the mixed-sex groups evaluated the female-authored articles less favorably than the identical male-authored articles. In contrast, subjects in the all-women groups did not show sex discrimination in their evaluations. Sex-typed appropriateness of the article topics was not an important variable mediating the devaluation of the female-authored articles. Female subjects in mixed-sex groups endorsed more profeminist ideas on the Sex-Role Attitude Questionnaire than did male subjects, and there was a nonsignificant trend for women in the all-women groups after reading female-authored articles to endorse more profeminist ideas than did the women in the mixed-sex groups or in the all-women groups after reading male-authored articles. Results suggest that participation in an all-women's group may elicit a more positive image of other women and contribute to more egalitarian perceptions and behaviors.     

Maturation, Peer Context, and Indigenous Girls' Early-Onset Substance Use

This paper examines a biosocial model of the impact of puberty on Indigenous girls' early-onset substance use by considering the potential mediating role of peer context (i.e. mixed-sex peer groups and substance use prototypes) on the puberty and substance use relationship. Data include responses from 360 girls of a common Indigenous cultural group residing on reservations/reserves in the upper Midwest and Canada. Results of structural equation modeling revealed that the statistically significant relationship between girls' pubertal development and early-onset substance use was mediated by both mixed-sex/romantic peer groups and favorable social definitions of substance use. Implications for substance use prevention work include addressing the multiple and overlapping effects of peer influence from culturally-relevant perspectives.     

Norm-Narrowing and Self- and Other-Perceived Aggression in Early-Adolescent Same-Sex and Mixed-Sex Cliques

We examined the relations between group context and self- and other-perceptions of aggressive behavior in an ethnically-diverse sample of 168 male and female grade 7 adolescents. We used self- and peer-reports of aggression in high- and average-aggressive mixed-sex and same-sex cliques to examine whether group members would assimilate their self-report of aggression to the aggression report of their peers by way of perceived homophily or, conversely, engage in contrast and see their level of aggression as comparatively low in the face of high-aggression peers. Among boys in mixed-sex groups, comparison with highly-aggressive others resulted in a self-perception of lower levels of aggression than those perceived by their peers. Conversely, girls in mixed-sex groups reported their own levels of aggression to be higher than those perceived by their peers. We interpret these findings in terms of the notion of “norm narrowing”: rather than being set by the larger social environment, such as the school, norms are more narrowly determined within one's immediate peer group.     

The effects of the sex composition of groups on style of social interaction

Bales's revised interaction category analyses (1970) were done from audio tapes of 77 four-person discussion groups: 46 mixed-sex groups, 15 female groups, and 16 male groups. Each group discussed three cases for a total of 35 minutes. The hypothesis tested was that females in mixed-sex groups would suppress their level of “task” contribution and engage in higher levels of “socioemotional” contributions when compared to the performance of women in one-sex groups. Males were also predicted to become more sex-role stereotyped in mixed-sex groups, showing the opposite effect. Results showed large sex differences, regardless of group composition, in the direction of traditional sex roles. The effect of group composition, however, was opposite to that predicted. An effect of an experimental intervention during the second discussion topic on subsequent sex-role performance was also found. Implications for education are discussed.     

同伴团体对儿童青少年学业成就和社会功能关系的影响

运用同伴评价、教师评估和学校记录等多种渠道收集关于同伴团体、社会功能、同伴接纳以及学业成就的资料,旨在考察同伴团体与儿童青少年学业成就和社会功能的关系。研究发现：绝大多数儿童青少年都有自己的同伴团体。这些同伴团体在学业成就上有很高的同质性。学业成就与社会适应无论在团体内的个体水平还是在团体水平上都密切相关。而且,团体的学业表现是个体学业成就和社会适应间的重要调节因素,表明团体学业规范对个体水平上学业成就与社会功能的关系有增强或是减弱的作用。这项研究再一次证明同伴团体在儿童个体发展中的重要意义。     

Children's meta‐perceptions and meta‐accuracy of acceptance and rejection by same‐sex and other‐sex peers

The goals of this study were to examine children's meta‐perceptions and meta‐accuracy of acceptance and rejection in the peer group, the degree to which these perceptions vary by perceiver sex and sex of the reference group, and the association between these perceptions and children's actual functioning in the peer group. Participants were 644 fourth‐grade children. Meta‐perceptions and meta‐accuracy were derived from sociometric nominations of actual and perceived acceptance and rejection. Children more accurately perceived how they were seen by same‐sex peers than how they were seen by other‐sex peers. They also perceived more rejection than acceptance from other‐sex peers. Meta‐accuracy for rejection was low regardless of the sex of the reference group. Sex of the reference group significantly moderated the association between meta‐perceptions and meta‐accuracy of acceptance and rejection and children's actual peer relationships. These findings indicate the importance of examining these relatively understudied social cognitions in research with children and the importance of taking the sex of the reference group into account in future peer relations studies using peer nomination methods.     

Professionals' negative expectations of boys from father-headed single-parent families: Implications for the training of child-care professionals

The study explored the possibility that individuals' assessment of children's personality and behavioural functioning may reflect stereotypic perceptions involving more negative expectations of boys from father-headed as opposed to mother-headed single-parent families. These hypotheses were based upon the assumptions of the pre-emincnce of the maternal role in the parent-child relation. The objective was to determine whether stereotypic perceptions, if any, prevail equally or differentially among laypersons and trained professionals such as teachers and social workers. Consistent with the hypotheses, the findings showed that both laypersons and professionals had more negative expectations of boys from father- as opposed to mother-custody homes. Comparison of laypersons with the professional group of teachers and social workers combined showed no significant differences between the perceptions of these two groups of respondents. The teachers, however, had significantly fewer stereotypic negative perceptions of boys from father-headed families than laypersons and social workers. The implications of the findings are discussed for the welfare of the children and their single parents, and the training of professionals.     

童年中后期儿童同伴接纳知觉准确性与偏差及其对社交退缩的影响

以小学三年级至六年级的儿童为被试,探讨同伴接纳知觉准确性的年级和性别差异,同时考察同伴接纳知觉准确性及偏差对社交退缩行为的预测作用。儿童完成同伴评定、知觉评定、社交自我知觉和班级戏剧量表。结果表明：（1）随着年级的升高,儿童的同伴接纳知觉越来越准确;儿童的同性同伴接纳知觉准确性不存在显著的性别差异;四年级男生的异性同伴接纳知觉准确性显著低于女生;（3）同伴接纳知觉准确性显著正向预测安静退缩和活跃退缩;同伴接纳知觉偏差显著负向预测安静退缩,但对活跃退缩不具有显著的预测效应。     

Gender and Age Differences in Social Skills Among Children with ADHD: Peer Problems and Prosocial Behavior

Abstract

Gender differences in peer problems and prosocial behavior among children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) were examined. Parents and teachers rated social functioning on the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) among 592 children (age 5–10?years) with ADHD and among 215 children (age 6–10?years) in a community sample. Results in the clinical group revealed significant interaction effects where older boys showed fewer peer problems than younger boys, but older girls had similar peer problems as younger girls. Teachers reported less prosocial behavior among younger girls than older girls. No gender differences in social problems emerged for the nonclinical comparison group.     

Depression, Psychological Resources, and Health-Related Quality of Life in Older Adults 75 and Above

The purposes of this study were (1) to compare psychological resources and health-related quality of life between two groups of community-dwelling elders, 75 years of age and older, with similar chronic illnesses, but with varying levels of depression, and (2) to examine the relationships among depression, psychological resources, and health-related quality of life. Fifty-two elders (14 men and 38 women) were divided into mildly (n = 18) and severely (n = 34) depressed groups based on their depression scores. There were no significant differences between the two groups for demographic and illness characteristics. There were significant differences for number of medications, mastery, health perceptions, mental health functioning, and well-being. Severely depressed elders had poorer health perceptions, and decreased mastery, functioning, and well-being as compared with mildly depressed elders. An explanatory model was developed using factor analysis that fit the data well. Health perceptions and mastery had direct influences on depression, and depression directly impacted well-being.     

Emotional Expressiveness during Peer Conflicts: A Predictor of Social Maladjustment among High-Risk Preschoolers

Preschool boys' emotional displays during conflicts with mixed-sex peers were related to individual differences in peer sociometric status and teacher ratings of disruptive behavior. Participants were 60 4- to 5-year old boys from low-income families who were videotaped with a small group of classmates in a Head Start preschool classroom. Conflicts were identified and emotional displays were coded from videotape. Results indicated that conflicts were more negative in emotional tone at the end than at the beginning of the year. Furthermore, children tended to mirror each others' emotional displays at the end but not the beginning of the preschool year. In addition, gleeful taunting, a form of emotional aggression, more strongly predicted negative peer nominations and teacher ratings than anger, suggesting that anger may be a more socially accepted form of emotional expression during conflicts among preschool-age children. Implications and directions for future research and interventions are discussed.     

中小学中欺负者、受欺负者与欺负-受欺负者的同伴关系

采用Olweus欺负问卷和同伴提名测验,以1089名小学和初中学生为被试,考察欺负者、受欺负者与欺负-受欺负者的同伴关系特点.研究发现:(1)小学生的欺负者/受欺负者显著高于初中生;(2)男生中的期负者显著多于女生;(3)欺负者的同伴拒绝水平高于受欺负者、欺负-受欺负者和未参与者,但同伴接纳水平与未参与者无显著差异;(4)受欺负者、欺负-受欺负者的同伴拒绝水平高于、同伴接纳水平低于未参与者.在男性受欺负者中被拒绝的比例显著高于男性非受欺负者,但女性受欺负者中被拒绝的比例与女性非受欺负者之间无显著差异.     

Emergent Leadership and Female Sex Role Identity

The effects of female sex role identity on self- and rater evaluations of emergent leadership behavior were compared in two studies. We used the same consensus-seeking procedure in both studies to collect the data; only the biological sex composition of the groups in the second study was changed. Study 1 examined 15 mixed-sex groups of 39 female and 21 male students; Study 2 contained 96 female students in 22 same-sex groups. Sex role orientation was measured with the Bern Sex Role Inventory (BSRI: Bem, 1974). Androgynous and feminine-oriented self-ratings of leadership were significantly higher than peer ratings and were also significantly higher than the undifferentiated self-ratings. The self-ratings of masculine-oriented women agreed most closely with peer ratings. Contrary to research and theory, peer evaluation of leadership behavior by sex role orientation did not differ.     

Social competence and conduct problems in young children: issues in assessment

Examined the differences in various facets of social competence in 2 groups of young children (ages 4-7 years)--a clinic-referred group of aggressive children (N = 60) diagnosed with oppositional defiant disorder or conduct problems and a matched comparison group of typically developing children (N = 60). Four aspects of social competence were assessed: social information processing, actual observations of conflict management skills and social play interactions during peer interactions, positive social interactions with mothers and fathers at home, and teacher reports of social competence. The social information processing assessed included problem-solving skills (hypothetical skills as demonstrated on a social problem-solving test), self-perceptions (child's awareness of his or her own social self and feelings of loneliness), perceptions of others (attributions), and perceptions of others' attitudes toward oneself. To determine the construct validity of various means of assessing child social competence, we correlated children's social information processing measures with parent and teacher reports of social adjustment and with actual observations of interactions during peer play and at home with parents. Results comparing the 2 groups suggest that young children with conduct problems have deficits in their social information processing awareness or interpretation of social cues--they overestimate their own social competence and misattribute hostile intent to others. Tests of cognitive problem solving and observations of peer play interactions indicated that the children with conduct problems had significantly fewer positive problem-solving strategies and positive social skills, more negative conflict management strategies, and delayed play skills with peers than the comparison children. Correlation analyses indicated significant correlations between children's negative attributions and the ratio of positive to negative problem-solving strategies with observations of peer play interactions.     

Emergent leadership and female sex role identity.

The effects of female sex role identity on self- and rater evaluations of emergent leadership behavior were compared in two studies. We used the same consensus-seeking procedure in both studies to collect the data; only the biological sex composition of the groups in the second study was changed. Study 1 examined 15 mixed-sex groups of 39 female and 21 male students; Study 2 contained 96 female students in 22 same-sex groups. Sex role orientation was measured with the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI: Bem, 1974). Androgynous and feminine-oriented self-ratings of leadership were significantly higher than peer ratings and were also significantly higher than the undifferentiated self-ratings. The self-ratings of masculine-oriented women agreed most closely with peer ratings. Contrary to research and theory, peer evaluation of leadership behavior by sex role orientation did not differ.     

An Investigation of Genetic Counselor Experiences in Peer Group Supervision

Peer supervision groups have been studied in counseling fields including psychotherapy and social work. However, limited research exists regarding genetic counselor peer supervision groups. In the present study five major research questions were investigated: (1) How prevalent is peer group supervision among genetic counselors? (2) What motivates genetic counselors to join and continue to seek peer group supervision? (3) What comprises the content, agenda, and structure of group meetings? (4) What are participants’ perceptions of group dynamics, including conflicts, cohesion, and leadership? and (5) What are the perceived benefits and limitations of participating in peer group supervision? A total of 214 genetic counselors completed an online survey, and 70 (34.8%) reported being involved currently in peer group supervision. Fifteen of these 70 respondents were interviewed regarding their experiences in peer group supervision. Inductive analysis of their responses yielded 11 domains and 37 categories. Practice implications and research recommendations are discussed.     

Sex composition and group performance in a visual signal detection task

Forty-eight Ss (24 males, 24 females) were run in groups of 4 on 720 trials of a 16-alternative forced-choice visual signal detection task requiring both individual and group decisions. Four types of groups were formed: all male, all female, mixed-alternate (seated in the order male-female-male-female), and mixed-adjacent (seated in the order male-male-female-female). There were no differences in performance between all-male and all-female groups, but mixed-sex groups had poorer performance, with mixed-adjacent groups having significantly lower sensitivity than homogeneous-sex groups. The results were interpreted as indicating that heterogeneity of groups with regard to sex interacts with seating pattern in affecting performance, probably due to the formation of information coalitions between like-sex group members when the seating pattern encourages such coalitions.     

不同攻击/受欺负类别儿童的同伴交往自我知觉

以474名小学三、四、五、六年级的儿童为被试,考察了不同攻击-受欺负类型儿童自我知觉的社会能力以及自我提名的朋友与双向互选朋友数量、同伴积极提名、消极提名的关系。结果表明,各攻击/受欺负组别在自我提名的朋友数量上无显著差异,但在自我知觉的社会能力、双向互选朋友数及同伴积极提名、消极提名上均存在显著差异。在自我知觉的社会能力方面,单纯攻击组最高,攻击-受欺负组最低。在双向互选朋友以及同伴积极提名方面,未参与组最高,其余依次为单纯攻击组、单纯受欺负组和攻击-受欺负组。