Further evaluation of observational and mechanical measures of physical activity

Recent behavioral research has used a variety of methods to quantify physical activity, including direct observation using the Observational System for Recording Physical Activity (OSRAC), and automated devices such as heart rate (HR) monitors, pedometers, and Fitbit Accelerometers. The current study evaluated the concurrent validity of these measures, as well as the reliability of the pedometers and Fitbits. Four children engaged in 15 activities listed in the OSRAC coding system while their HRs and steps taken were measured. The results indicated that for most activities, HR covaried with the OSRAC activity levels, although some exceptions were noted. Steps per minute as measured by the Fitbit also covaried with the OSRAC activity levels and Fitbit data were reliable when activities did not involve subjects losing contact with the ground. Pedometers produced similar but less reliable steps per minute data.     

Behavioral assessment of physical activity in obese preschool children

We measured changes in physical activity in 2 obese preschool children when a package intervention was evaluated in a reversal design. Physical activity was measured via direct observation and pedometers. Although the intervention produced only modest increases in activity, the results provide preliminary concurrent validation for the dependent measures used, in that the two measures covaried and a similar degree of change was observed with each across baseline and intervention phases.     

Personality and Serum Lipids: Does Lifestyle Account for Their Concurrent and Long‐term Relationships

This study evaluates concurrent and over time associations of personality with measures of three serum lipids associated coronary heart disease morbidity, namely, high‐density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL‐C), low‐density lipoprotein cholesterol and triglyceride (TRI). Participants were individuals who underwent a health examination at two points of time, T1 (N = 3835) and T2 (N = 2283), about 2.5 years apart. Personality was assessed by the Five‐Factor Model. Health, socioeconomic status and healthy lifestyle behaviours (smoking intensity, physical activity and body weight) were controlled. Regression analyses indicate that the personality factors of neuroticism, extraversion and conscientiousness are each significantly associated with HDL‐C and TRI, both concurrently and over time. However, most of these associations decreased to marginal significance when adjusted for body weight or physical activity as possible mediators. Both concurrent and over time associations of the openness personality trait with HDL‐C and TRI were significant and persisted after adjustment for measures of a healthy lifestyle. This study emphasizes the importance of collecting measures of a healthy lifestyle to better understand how personality might influence serum lipids. Copyright © 2013 European Association of Personality Psychology     

The early development of human mirror mechanisms: evidence from electromyographic recordings at 3 and 6 months

In primates and adult humans direct understanding of others' action is provided by mirror mechanisms matching action observation and action execution (e.g. Casile, Caggiano & Ferrari, 2011). Despite the growing body of evidence detailing the existence of these mechanisms in the adult human brain, their origins and early development are largely unknown. In this study, for the first time, electromyographic (EMG) measures were used to shed light on the emergence of mirror motor mechanisms in infancy. EMG activity was recorded while 6‐ and 3‐month‐old infants watched two videos displaying an agent reaching for, grasping and bringing an object either to the mouth or to the head. Results indicate that the motor system of 6‐month‐olds, but not 3‐month‐olds, was recruited and selectively modulated during observation of the goal‐directed actions, favoring the idea that mirror mechanisms driving action understanding gradually emerge during early development.     

Mediating relationship between body mass index and the direct measures of the Theory of Planned Behaviour on physical activity intention

This research examines (a) the interrelationships between body mass index (BMI), the direct measures of the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) and physical activity intention and (b) the potential mediation effects of the direct measures of the TPB in the relationship between BMI and physical activity intention in a sample of Australian adults. A total sample of 1,062 respondents participated in a computer-assisted telephone-interview (CATI) survey comprised of a standardised introduction; questions regarding TPB and physical activity; and standard demographic questions. BMI for each participant was calculated from self-reported height and weight. Separate regression analyses were performed to examine the mediating effects of each of the direct measures of the TPB on the predictive relationship between the BMI and physical activity intention, as proposed by Baron and Kenny (Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173 - 1182, 1986). Findings indicated that the direct measure of attitude and perceived behavioural control mediated the relationship between BMI and physical activity intention. However, the direct measure of subjective norm failed to act as a mediating mechanism. To date there has been no research that has examined the mechanism by which body mass may affect physical activity behaviour. Given the current focus for health promotion specialists on promoting physical activity as a strategy for reducing overweight and obesity, a theoretical understanding of weight-related barriers to physical activity may aid in the development of future interventions and community physical activity programs, particularly those targeting overweight and obese populations.     

Extending the trans‐contextual model in physical education and leisure‐time contexts: Examining the role of basic psychological need satisfaction

Background. The trans‐contextual model (TCM) is an integrated model of motivation that aims to explain the processes by which agentic support for autonomous motivation in physical education promotes autonomous motivation and physical activity in a leisure‐time context. It is proposed that perceived support for autonomous motivation in physical education is related to autonomous motivation in physical education and leisure‐time contexts. Furthermore, relations between autonomous motivation and the immediate antecedents of intentions to engage in physical activity behaviour and actual behaviour are hypothesized. Aims. The purpose of the present study was to incorporate the constructs of basic psychological need satisfaction in the TCM to provide a more comprehensive explanation of motivation and demonstrate the robustness of the findings of previous tests of the model that have not incorporated these constructs. Sample. Students (N=274) from Greek secondary schools. Method. Participants completed self‐report measures of perceived autonomy support, autonomous motivation, and basic psychological need satisfaction in physical education. Follow‐up measures of these variables were taken in a leisure‐time context along with measures of attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioural control (PBC), and intentions from the theory of planned behaviour 1 week later. Self‐reported physical activity behaviour was measured 4 weeks later. Results. Results supported TCM hypotheses. Basic psychological need satisfaction variables uniquely predicted autonomous motivation in physical education and leisure time as well as the antecedents of intention, namely, attitudes, and PBC. The basic psychological need satisfaction variables also mediated the effects of perceived autonomy support on autonomous motivation in physical education. Conclusions. Findings support the TCM and provide further information of the mechanisms in the model and integrated theories of motivation in physical education and leisure time.     

COMPUTER‐ASSISTED MEASUREMENT OF WOUND SIZE ASSOCIATED WITH SELF‐INJURIOUS BEHAVIOR

We evaluated an inexpensive, efficient, and noninvasive technique for measuring tissue damage produced by self‐injurious behavior (SIB). The technique involved computerized measurement of wound surface area (WSA) based on digital photographs. In Study 1, we compared photographic measurement to a more commonly used procedure, transparency measurement, in estimating WSA of 20 wound models. Results showed that both methods were reliable and that there was a high degree of correspondence between the 2 sets of measures. In Study 2, we compared photographic WSA measures to direct‐observation measures in documenting changes over time in the SIB exhibited by a woman with Prader‐Willi syndrome. Results showed that increases and decreases in observed SIB during baseline and treatment conditions corresponded with changes in WSA measures, indicating that the computer‐assisted photographic technique may be useful as a corroborative measure or as a primary measure when direct observation of SIB is not feasible.     

Upper‐Body Strength and Political Egalitarianism: Twelve Conceptual Replications

Animal models of conflict behavior predict that an organism's behavior in a conflict situation is influenced by physical characteristics related to abilities to impose costs on adversaries. Stronger and larger organisms should be more motivated to seek larger shares of resources and higher places in hierarchies. Previous studies of human males have suggested that measures of upper‐body strength are associated with measures of support for inequality including Social Dominance Orientation (SDO), a measure of individual differences in support for group‐based hierarchies. However, other studies have failed to replicate this association. In this article, we reexamine the link between upper‐body strength and support for inequality using 12 different samples from multiple countries in which relevant measures were available. These samples include student and locally representative samples with direct measures of physical strength and nationally representative samples with self‐reported measures related to muscularity. While the predicted correlation does not replicate for every single available measure of support for inequality, the overall data pattern strongly suggests that for males, but not females, upper‐body strength correlates positively with support for inequality.     

The relation between scores on the Buss–Perry Aggression Questionnaire and aggressive acts,impulsiveness, competitiveness,dominance, and sexual jealousy

This paper examines the relation of the four subscales (physical, verbal, anger and hostility) of the Buss–Perry Aggression Questionnaire (BPAQ) to act‐based aggression questionnaires (involving same‐sex or partners as opponents, and direct or indirect aggression) and evolutionarily based predictors of aggression, using an online student sample. All aggression measures were moderately correlated with one another. The BPAQ physical and verbal scales were most closely related to act‐based measures of direct aggression to a same‐sex other and the hostility scale to indirect aggression to a same‐sex other. The evolutionary variables were less closely related to the BPAQ than were the act‐based measures. Dominance and sexual jealousy were predictors of BPAQ physical, verbal and anger, and impulsiveness was a significant predictor of anger. Aggr. Behav. 32:1–10, 2006. © 2006 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Depression and heart rate variability in cardiac rehabilitation patients: exploring the roles of physical activity and fitness

Cardiac patients with depression have shown altered autonomic nervous system functioning, expressed as reduced heart rate variability. This may be associated with poorer physical fitness and less physical activity among depressed patients. These relationships were explored among patients enrolled in outpatient cardiac rehabilitation. 22 depressed and 22 nondepressed patients, matched for sex and age, were assessed at enrollment. The Beck Depression Inventory and structured interviews were used to measure depression. Patients completed ambulatory monitoring of ECG (i.e., Holter) and physical activity, as well as a treadmill stress test. Depression was associated with several measures of heart rate variability. Activity and fitness were lower among the depressed patients. Although exploratory, accounting for activity and fitness attenuated the relationship between depression and heart rate variability. This suggests that altered fitness and activity may help explain altered autonomic tone that characterizes patients with cardiovascular diseases who are psychologically depressed.     

Combination of extinction and protective measures in the treatment of severely self‐injurious behavior

Two female adolescents with profound mental retardation and physical disabilities residing in a state facility exhibited self‐injurious behavior (SIB). They had been wearing restrictive mechanical restraints for more than two years to prevent injuries from occurring. By using an indirect method of functional analysis, social attention was found to be the factor reinforcing and maintaining their behaviors. Extinction in combination with non‐intrusive protective measures was selected as the intervention strategy to reduce SIB. The outcomes of the treatment were evaluated with an AB probe design. Incidents of SIB decreased quickly and sharply after the treatment began. Once the incidents had reached a level of zero for three consecutive sessions, a six‐month follow‐up was started. No SIB was observed or reported during the follow‐up. The advantages of using extinction, especially in conjunction with the non‐intrusive protective measures to treat SIB, are discussed. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The role of socio-communicative rearing environments in the development of social and physical cognition in apes

The cultural intelligence hypothesis (CIH) claims that humans’ advanced cognition is a direct result of human culture and that children are uniquely specialized to absorb and utilize this cultural experience ( Tomasello, 2000 ). Comparative data demonstrating that 2.5‐year‐old human children outperform apes on measures of social cognition but not on measures of physical cognition support this claim ( Herrmann et al., 2007 ). However, the previous study failed to control for rearing when comparing these two species. Specifically, the human children were raised in a human culture whereas the apes were raised in standard sanctuary settings. To further explore the CIH, here we compared the performance on multiple measures of social and physical cognition in a group of standard reared apes raised in conditions typical of zoo and biomedical laboratory settings to that of apes reared in an enculturated socio‐communicatively rich environment. Overall, the enculturated apes significantly outperformed their standard reared counterparts on the cognitive tasks and this was particularly true for measures of communication. Furthermore, the performance of the enculturated apes was very similar to previously reported data from 2.5‐year‐old children. We conclude that apes who are reared in a human‐like socio‐communicatively rich environment develop superior communicative abilities compared to apes reared in standard laboratory settings, which supports some assumptions of the cultural intelligence hypothesis.     

The Influence of Chronically Accessible Autonomous and Controlling Motives on Physical Activity Within an Extended Theory of Planned Behavior

An extended theory of planned behavior ( Ajzen, 1991 ), incorporating the post‐decisional phase of behavior and constructs from self‐determination theory ( Deci & Ryan, 1985 ), was tested for physical activity using a prospective survey design. Participants (N = 172) completed measures of intentions, attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control (PBC), self‐determined motivation, continuation intentions, and chronically accessible physical activity motives. Participants completed a self‐report measure of physical activity 3 weeks later. Path analysis supported the predictive utility of the proposed model. Importantly, the effect of continuation intentions of success on physical activity behavior was moderated by chronically accessible physical activity motives. Findings underscore the importance of taking into account continuation intentions, self‐determined motivation, and individuals' chronically accessible motives when developing physical‐activity‐promoting interventions.     

The Benefits of Goal Adjustment Capacities for Well‐Being Among Women With Breast Cancer: Potential Mechanisms of Action

Breast cancer can seriously disrupt a person's important life goals. As such, the ability to adjust one's goals may be critical for well‐being. The present study investigated the relationships between disengagement/reengagement capacity and well‐being among women with breast cancer, as well as several potential mechanisms (intrusive thoughts, life purpose, and physical activity) that could explain these relationships. The sample consisted of 230 women with early‐stage (n = 172) or late‐stage (n = 58) breast cancer, who were followed prospectively for 8 months. Well‐being measures consisted of global mental health, perceived physical health, positive/negative affect, and sleep efficiency. Disengagement capacity did not predict any outcome variable. In contrast, reengagement capacity prospectively predicted changes in global mental health, positive affect, negative affect, sleep efficiency, life purpose, and physical activity. Life purpose mediated the prospective relationship between reengagement capacity and multiple aspects of well‐being. The relationships between purpose and positive/negative affect were reciprocal over time. Results also suggested that physical activity is not a mediator, but is in fact a result of the effect of reengagement capacity on well‐being. The results demonstrate that reengagement capacity is important for well‐being among women with breast cancer.     

Sex differences in processing aggression words using the Emotional Stroop task

There is a robust relationship between the salience of stimulus materials presented in the Emotional Stroop task and inhibition of response in clinical populations. Researchers have now found information‐processing biases in both forensic and non‐forensic samples presented with threatening or aggressive stimuli [Cohen et'al., 1998; Eckhardt and Cohen, 1997; Smith and Waterman, 2003; Van Honk et'al., 2001]. We sought to explore sex differences in processing words relating to acts of direct and indirect aggression using a group of undergraduates (50 males and 50 females). Participants also completed self‐report questionnaires (AQ and EXPAGG) to allow some consideration of the relationship between objective and subjective measures. We predicted that males would demonstrate delayed responses when presented with words relating to acts of direct aggression. We also predicted that high levels of physical aggression would be the best predictor of bias for direct aggression words, high levels of verbal aggression would be the best predictor of bias for indirect aggression words, physical aggression would predict bias in males, and verbal aggression would predict bias in females. Males demonstrated a perceptual bias for words relating to acts of direct aggression, taking significantly longer to correctly colour name direct aggression words. Females were slower to correctly colour name indirect aggression words, but not significantly so. Verbal aggression, as expected, predicted bias performance for indirect aggression words but anger rather than physical aggression was the best predictor of bias for direct aggression words. Gender was a predictor for bias with both sets of words. Contrary to our predictions, it was observed that a high level of physical aggression was the best predictor of bias in both males and females. These data provide further evidence to confirm the saliency of aggression words to aggressive individuals in non‐forensic populations. Aggress. Behav. 00:00–00, 2005. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Implementation Planning as a Pathway Between Goal Motivation and Goal Progress for Academic and Physical Activity Goals1

The aim of this prospective study was to investigate the role of self‐concordance and implementation planning on the progress made by university students in the pursuit of their academic and physical activity goals over a 1‐month period. A sample of 205 students completed measures of self‐concordance at Time 1, and implementation planning and goal progress at Time 2. Results of structural equation modeling analyses indicated that implementation planning partially mediated the relationship between self‐concordance and academic goal progress, and fully mediated this relationship for goals related to physical activity. The results attest to the importance of selecting goals that are congruent with the self and the use of planning strategies for the facilitation of goal progress in 2 life domains.     

Scheduling observational and physical practice: influence on the coding of simple motor sequences

The main purpose of the present experiment was to determine the coordinate system used in the development of movement codes when observational and physical practice are scheduled across practice sessions. The task was to reproduce a 1,300-ms spatial-temporal pattern of elbow flexions and extensions. An intermanual transfer paradigm with a retention test and two effector (contralateral limb) transfer tests was used. The mirror effector transfer test required the same pattern of homologous muscle activation and sequence of limb joint angles as that performed or observed during practice, and the non-mirror effector transfer test required the same spatial pattern movements as that performed or observed. The test results following the first acquisition session replicated the findings of Gruetzmacher, Panzer, Blandin, and Shea (2011) . The results following the second acquisition session indicated a strong advantage for participants who received physical practice in both practice sessions or received observational practice followed by physical practice. This advantage was found on both the retention and the mirror transfer tests compared to the non-mirror transfer test. These results demonstrate that codes based in motor coordinates can be developed relatively quickly and effectively for a simple spatial-temporal movement sequence when participants are provided with physical practice or observation followed by physical practice, but physical practice followed by observational practice or observational practice alone limits the development of codes based in motor coordinates.     

Physical Activity,Suicide Risk Factors,and Suicidal Ideation in a Veteran Sample

The association between current level of suicidal ideation and physical activity was tested in a broad sample of veterans seeking care from the Veterans Health Administration. It was hypothesized that the two variables would be significantly inversely related. It was further hypothesized that the relationship would be mediated by depressive symptoms, disturbed sleep, and a measure of heart rate variability based on existing research regarding physical activity and sleep. Due to the first hypothesis not being supported, the second could not be tested. Post hoc correlation analyses did find associations between physical activity and depressive symptoms, in expected directions, and are discussed. Possible explanations for the negative findings along with recommendations for future research to continue exploring links between suicide risk and physical activity are presented. We conclude by suggesting that physical activity may have promise as a risk reduction intervention and that prospective data are more likely to yield significant results than the cross‐sectional methodology employed in the current study.     

Contextual and Individual Predictors of Psychological Disengagement From Sport During a Competitive Event

The present study aims to identify the processes underlying athletes' psychological disengagement during a competitive event. It was expected that goal attainment would predict psychological disengagement through the mediation of physical self‐worth. It was further hypothesized that athletic identity and passion for the activity would be predictors of psychological disengagement. Athletes completed measures of athletic identity, passion, and physical self‐worth before a competition; and perceived goal attainment, physical self‐worth, and psychological disengagement after a competition. Physical self‐worth mediated the relationship between perceived goal attainment and discounting. Obsessive passion and athletic identity were negatively related to devaluing over and above goal attainment and physical self‐worth. The study highlights individual and contextual correlates of psychological disengagement in the sport setting.