Are letter codes always activated?

This investigation assesses whether a word’s constituent-letter codes are activated when whole-word processing is encouraged, as well as when letter processing is encouraged. In Experiments 1 and 2, word primes were followed by a target item that had to be named. The target was a word, a constituent letter that had appeared in the prime, or a nonconstituent letter that had not appeared in the prime. The measure of constituent-letter activation was the difference in letter-naming latency between constituent and nonconstituent letters. Presumably, if constituent letters are named faster, letters are being activated by the words in which they appear. To encourage either whole-word or letter analysis during the processing of the priming word, the proportion of word versus letter targets was systematically varied. When the proportion heavily favored letter targets, constituent letters were named faster than their nonconstituent controls. However, a constituent-letter (vs. a nonconstituent-letter) advantage was not obtained when the proportion favored word targets. Experiment 3 replicated the effect with a priming task that required a discrimination response, instead of a naming response. Thus the results suggested that the activation of constituent-letter codes need not take place during the processing of words, but occurs only when letter analysis is stressed by the task.     

Inverse discrimination time as a perceptual distance for alphabetic characters

Reaction times to discriminate lower‐case letters were collected in an experiment. The inverse discrimination times were used to build metrics on the space of letters. These metrics were found to be significantly correlated with various well‐known letter confusability measures, and a meaningful dimensional analysis of the alphabet was performed. This methodology is mathematically well founded, it requires fewer data than common methods, and it appears to be highly sensitive to visual similarity between letters, which allows visual letter features to be effectively analysed.     

The role of letter recognition in word recognition

In a paradigm that avoids methodological problems of earlier studies, evidence was gathered addressed to the question of whether we read letter by letter. If word recognition involves letter recognition, then the difficulty of recognizing a word should vary with the difficulty of recognizing its letters. This was tested by assessing letter difficulty in two letter discrimination tasks and in a letter naming task, and then comparing 15 adult subjects' visual recognition latency to 72 easy-letter words and to 72 difficult-letter words. Word frequency and word length were also manipulated. Results indicated no effect for letter difficulty, although recognition latency reliably decreased with word frequency and monotonically increased with word length (21 msec/letter), suggesting that we do not read letter by letter, but that whatever plays a role in word recognition is smaller than the word and correlated with word length in letters.     

Early development of letter specialization in left fusiform is associated with better word reading and smaller fusiform face area

A functional region of left fusiform gyrus termed “the visual word form area” (VWFA) develops during reading acquisition to respond more strongly to printed words than to other visual stimuli. Here, we examined responses to letters among 5‐ and 6‐year‐old early kindergarten children (N = 48) with little or no school‐based reading instruction who varied in their reading ability. We used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to measure responses to individual letters, false fonts, and faces in left and right fusiform gyri. We then evaluated whether signal change and size (spatial extent) of letter‐sensitive cortex (greater activation for letters versus faces) and letter‐specific cortex (greater activation for letters versus false fonts) in these regions related to (a) standardized measures of word‐reading ability and (b) signal change and size of face‐sensitive cortex (fusiform face area or FFA; greater activation for faces versus letters). Greater letter specificity, but not letter sensitivity, in left fusiform gyrus correlated positively with word reading scores. Across children, in the left fusiform gyrus, greater size of letter‐sensitive cortex correlated with lesser size of FFA. These findings are the first to suggest that in beginning readers, development of letter responsivity in left fusiform cortex is associated with both better reading ability and also a reduction of the size of left FFA that may result in right‐hemisphere dominance for face perception.     

Evidence for Mixed Processes in Normal/Mirror Discrimination of Rotated Letters: A Bayesian Model Comparison Between Single- and Mixed-Distribution Models1

When determining whether a rotated letter is normal or mirrored, an observer mentally rotates the letter to its canonical orientation. To account for patterns of response times (RTs) for the normal/mirror discrimination of rotated letters, previous research formulated a model that postulated a mixture of trials with and without mental rotation. While this model could explain the curvilinear relationship that has been found between averaged RT and letter orientations, the curved RT function is still open to alternative explanations without assuming mixed processes. To address this issue and test the mixed-process hypothesis more directly, we analyzed trial-by-trial RT data instead of averaged RTs by employing a Bayesian model comparison technique. If rotation and non-rotation trials are mixed, trial-by-trial RTs for letters in a particular orientation should not follow a single distribution but a mixed one formed from the superposition of two separate distributions, one for rotation and one for non-rotation trials. In the present study, we compared single- and mixed-distribution models. Bayes-factor analysis showed decisive support for the mixed-distribution model over the single-distribution model. In addition, using the widely applicable information criterion (WAIC), the predictive accuracy of the mixed-distribution model was found to be as high as that of the single-distribution model. These results indicated the involvement of mixed processes in normal/mirror discrimination of rotated letters. The usefulness of statistical modeling in psychological study and necessary precautions to take in the interpretation of the parameters of unconfirmed models are also discussed.     

Target letter inclusion in single and multiple word substrings and identification accuracy

In experiment 1, target letter discrimination in quadrigrams containing multiple subwords was found to be no more accurate than target letter discrimination in strings of four unrelated letters. Discrimination in quadrigrams, each including the target letter and a one-word trigram of which the target was not a part, was significantly poorer than discrimination in either of the other two types. In Experiment 2, a possible explanation of the latter result involving capacity limitations was eliminated by presenting the target above or below the other letters, which were presented in the same order as in corresponding strings in Experiment 1. The results are explained with respect to the interactive activation model of context effects in letter perception, with a modification proposed involving inhibitory connections between word nodes.     

Interference effect caused by repetition in visual recognition of letters: Examination of the orthographic difference between two same letters1

Abstract: The present study examined the effect of phonological identity between two letters on the visual recognition of the letters. Participants were required to identify the two same or different letters that were successively presented for a short duration. In order to manipulate the phonological identity of the two letters, the orthography of the Kana letters was varied. In half of the trials, the first and second letters were presented in Hiragana (the same‐orthography condition). In the other half, the first letter was presented in Katakana, and the second letter in Hiragana (the different‐orthography condition). The results revealed that the identification performance for the second letter was reduced in the same‐orthography condition when the two letters were the same, compared with when they were different. In contrast to this, in the different‐orthography condition, the identification performance of the second repeated letter was marginally superior to that of the nonrepeated letter. Considering the present findings together with those of the author's previous study (Kuwana, 2004), it is suggested that the interference effect caused by repetition could result from the reduction in the availability of visual pattern information stored in long‐term memory.     

Letter form as a constraint for errors in neglect dyslexia and letter position dyslexia

Does letter-form constrain errors in peripheral dyslexia? In Hebrew, 5 of the 22 letters have two different letter forms, one is used only when the letter occurs in word-final position, the other form is used in initial and middle positions. Is the information on final-forms encoded in the letter identity information and used for word identification, or is it discarded? The current research explored this question through the effect of final vs. non final letter form on the error pattern in neglect dyslexia (neglexia) and letter position dyslexia (LPD). Left word-based neglexia results in errors of omission, substitution and addition of letters in the left side of words, which in Hebrew is the end of the word. We examined whether final letter form blocks the addition of letters to the end of the word and whether omissions of letters after letters in non-final form are avoided. The predominant error type in LPD is migration of letters within words. We tested whether migrations also occur when they cause form change of either final-form letters that move to middle position or middle-form letters that move to final position. These questions were assessed in both acquired and developmental neglexia and LPD. The results indicated a strong effect of final letter-form on acquired neglexia and on acquired and developmental LPD, which almost completely prevented form-changing errors. This effect was not found in developmental neglexia, where words that end in final-form letters were actually more impaired than other words, probably because final-form letters appear only on the neglected side of the word for Hebrew-reading children with left developmental neglexia. These data show that early visuo-orthographic analysis is sensitive to final letter form and that final letter form constrains errors in peripheral dyslexia.     

Cooperation in Ethnically Diverse Neighborhoods: A Lost‐Letter Experiment

Several studies suggest a negative impact of ethnic diversity on cooperation, but most of them rely on attitudinal and other indirect measurements of cooperation or are derived from the artificial laboratory setting. We conducted a field experiment based on the lost‐letter technique across 52 neighborhoods in Berlin, Germany. The study has two aims. First, we investigate whether the negative effect of ethnic heterogeneity on cooperation holds for concrete cooperative behavior in a real‐world setting. Second, we test the most prominent psychological mechanism that has been proposed to explain the negative effects of heterogeneity on cooperation, namely in‐group favoritism. We do so by experimentally varying the ethnicity and religion of the senders of letters. We find strong support for the negative effect of ethnic diversity on cooperation. We find no evidence, however, of in‐group favoritism. Letters from Turkish or Muslim organizations were as often returned as those from German and Christian organizations, and the ethnic diversity effect was the same for all types of letters.     

Biases Influencing Recommendation Letter Contents: Physical Attractiveness and Gender1

This study investigated whether 2 well‐known biases, gender and physical appearance, influence readers' perceptions of different types of letters of recommendation (LORs; inflated vs. noninflated). Based on 244 participants, a main effect for letter type was found. Applicants with inflated letters were more likely to be hired and were predicted to become more successful, despite readers recognizing that the inflated letter contained exaggerations. A 3‐way interaction was also present. Gender and physical attractiveness did not influence reader perceptions when given an inflated letter, but when readers received a noninflated letter, attractive women were predicted to become most successful. These results demonstrate that readers may still be biased by irrelevant factors when reading LORs, emphasizing a need for letter reader training.     

Integrated pictorial mnemonics and stimulus fading: Teaching kindergartners letter sounds

Background. The conclusion from a vast literature on literacy acquisition is that letter knowledge is one of the best predictors of literacy development. The question of the best way to teach children letter sounds has not, as yet, been answered satisfactorily. Aims. The aim of this study was the evaluation of a computer training program using integrated‐picture mnemonics combined with a fading procedure to teach children letter sounds. Sample. Thirty‐nine kindergartners attending mainstream primary education participated in this study. Method. A within‐subject design was used. Each kindergartner learned letters under three conditions: (a) a fading condition in which letters are taught using a picture‐supported first‐sound mnemonics procedure in combination with a fading procedure; (b) an embedded condition in which letters are taught using the picture‐supported first‐sound‐mnemonics procedure only and (c) a without‐picture condition in which letters are taught using a first‐sound procedure without‐picture support. Dependent measures included a productive and receptive letter‐sound test, and a first‐sound isolation task. Results. Productive letter‐sound knowledge in the fading condition was better than in the other two conditions. In addition, kindergartners with good and those with poor first‐sound isolation ability performed equally well in the fading condition. However, in the embedded and in the without‐picture conditions, the kindergartners with good first‐sound isolation ability outperformed those with poor isolation ability. Conclusion. These findings indicate that an integrated‐picture mnemonics procedure combined with a fading procedure is effective in teaching kindergartners letter sounds and that the success of such a procedure does not depend on their initial first‐sound isolation ability.     

Can “words” be processed as integrated units?

Three experiments examined the information processing of letters embedded within one-syllable words and similar unpronounceable sequences. A speeded discrimination task was used to detect processing differences between words and nonwords in a situation where both the identity and position of critical display information was known to subjects before stimulus presentation. Results indicated that word pairs differing by two letters were more quickly discriminated than two words differing in a single letter, while nonword pairs differing in two letters were discriminated no faster than two nonwords differing in a single letter. A further comparison showed a performance advantage for words over nonwords in a condensation task that forced a scan of stimulus letters for correct responding. These results suggest that familiarity affects information processing at a perceptual level, and are incompatible with theories suggesting that familiarity effects are due to inferential factors following letter feature analysis.     

The relationship between perceived religious discrimination and self‐esteem for Muslim Australians

Muslim Australians represent one of the fastest growing migrant groups in Australia. They are also the group who, after Indigenous Australians, experience the most discrimination. Previous research on the minority stress model confirms a link between such discrimination and mental health. However, in relation to self‐esteem and discrimination, the results are mixed, potentially reflecting whether people reject or identify with prejudiced views of them and also the type of discrimination being measured. To explore this issue further in an Australian context, we asked 49 Australian Muslims to complete Rosenberg's Self‐esteem Scale and the Perceived Religious Discrimination Scale. In support of both the minority stress model and the rejection‐identification model, we found that perceived interpersonal and systemic discrimination accounts for a small but significant variation in self‐esteem. Interpersonal discrimination was negatively related to self‐esteem, and systemic discrimination positively related. The effects of interpersonal discrimination on self‐esteem can guide therapists to interventions that help clients resist internalising discrimination experiences. The effects of institutional discrimination support therapists becoming part of the resistance to and challenging of discrimination and inequality.     

Rapid processing of letters,digits and symbols: what purely visual‐attentional deficit in developmental dyslexia?

Visual‐attentional theories of dyslexia predict deficits for dyslexic children not only for the perception of letter strings but also for non‐alphanumeric symbol strings. This prediction was tested in a two‐alternative forced‐choice paradigm with letters, digits, and symbols. Children with dyslexia showed significant deficits for letter and digit strings but not for symbol strings. This finding is difficult to explain for visual‐attentional theories of dyslexia which postulate identical deficits for letters, digits and symbols. Moreover, dyslexics showed normal W‐shaped serial position functions for letter and digit strings, which suggests that their deficit is not due to an abnormally small attentional window. Finally, the size of the deficit was identical for letters and digits, which suggests that poor letter perception is not just a consequence of the lack of reading. Together then, our results show that symbols that map onto phonological codes are impaired (i.e. letters and digits), whereas symbols that do not map onto phonological codes are not impaired. This dissociation suggests that impaired symbol‐sound mapping rather than impaired visual‐attentional processing is the key to understanding dyslexia.     

Group‐based discrimination,national identification,and British Muslims’ attitudes toward non‐Muslims: the mediating role of perceived identity incompatibility

In two studies, we tested a model in which the perceived (in)compatibility of being British and Muslim (identity incompatibility) was expected to mediate between group‐based discrimination and the identifications and attitudes of British Muslims. In Study 1 (N = 76), anti‐Muslim discrimination was associated with lower national identification and more negative attitudes toward non‐Muslims, and these relationships were mediated by perceived identity incompatibility. In Study 2 (N = 70), we additionally found that anti‐Muslim discrimination predicted stronger endorsement of Islamic group rights, and this relationship was also mediated by perceived identity incompatibility. The studies highlight the importance of group‐based discrimination in shaping the perceived (in)compatibility of being British and Muslim, and, in turn, the identifications and attitudes of British Muslims.     

Competing top-down processes in visual selection: evidence that selection by location is stronger than selection by color

The purpose of this study was to examine whether color and position information are functionally equivalent when observers are asked to select simultaneously on both dimensions. Observers were asked to report a letter of a given color from a given region of a briefly flashed letter array, then to report any additional letters they could recall from the stimulus set. Of the additional letters, more location letters were reported than were same-color or neutral letters. The results suggested that position information has priority over color information in top-down-guided visual selection.     

Preferring alphabet–keyboard compatibility: Congruency between spatial codes shapes the affective connotation of letters

When letters are encountered, two spatial stimulus codes resulting from their positions within the alphabet and on the computer keyboard are activated mentally. If these two spatial codes match, letter processing is more efficient. The present study tested whether the processing fluency gain resulting from alphabet–keyboard compatibility also enhances affective evaluations of letters. In Experiment 1, participants preferred alphabet–keyboard compatible over incompatible letters in a forced-choice preference rating. Similarly, in Experiment 2, liking ratings for alphabet–keyboard compatible letters were higher compared to incompatible letters. Moreover, in Experiment 3, preference ratings of non-words were positively correlated with the relative number of alphabet–keyboard compatible letters within these letter strings. These findings suggest that alphabet–keyboard compatibility shapes the affective connotation of letters. Moreover, this processing fluency–valence association is activated at the level of letters as well as whole letter strings.     

The word without the tachistoscope

In experiments with an unlimited viewing time, we were able to isolate specific stimulus factors that lead to the word-superiority effect. We discovered that advantages of words over nonwords, and words over single letters, are caused by different factors. The word-nonword effect was found in a variety of circumstances, such as with small type, low contrast, or a simultaneously present mask. The advantage of words over single letters occurs only when the stimuli are embedded in a mask making it difficult to find a single letter. In addition, we obtained a word-detection effect without a brief exposure: Subjects were more accurate detecting the presence of words than nonwords. However, this effect only occurred when subjects were required to discriminate letters from nonletters. Thus, the word-superiority (word-nonword difference) and word-detection effects both involve letter discrimination and can be explained by similar mechanisms.     

The search for an input-coding scheme: Transposed-letter priming in Arabic

Two key issues for models of visual word recognition are the specification of an input-coding scheme and whether these input-coding schemes vary across orthographies. Here, we report two masked-priming lexical decision experiments that examined whether the ordering of the root letters plays a key role in producing transposed-letter effects in Arabic—a language characterized by non-concatenative morphology. In Experiment 1, letter transpositions involved two letters from the root, whereas in Experiment 2, letter transpositions involved one letter from the root and one letter from the word pattern. Results showed a reliable transposedletter priming effect when the ordering of the letters of the root was kept intact (Experiment 2), but not when two root letters were transposed (Experiment 1). These findings support the view that the order of the root letters is allowed only a minimum degree of perceptual noise to avoid the negative impact of activating the “wrong” root family.     

The category effect in visual search depends on physical rather than conceptual differences

Is a target letter (digit) more readily detected in a digit (letter) background because of conceptual-level differences between letters and digits or because of physical-level differences? When letters and digits were matched on physical features, both for the target set and the background set, no letter vs. digit category effect was found. With physical differences eliminated, search was faster and more accurate for letter than for digit targets and distractors, presumably because of the greater familiarity of letters. Presenting the same characters in normal and mirrorreversed orientation, which also minimized featural differences between categories, produced only a small normal vs. reversed category effect. In a normal background, a reversed target lost much more from its unfamiliarity than it gained from mismatching the background. The present results indicate that the category effect vanishes when only conceptual level differences are present.