Synergistic Effects of Expectancy and Value on Homework Engagement: The Case for a Within-Person Perspective

Historically, expectancy–value models of motivation assumed a synergistic relation between expectancy and value: motivation is high only when both expectancy and value are high. Motivational processes were studied from a within-person perspective, with expectancies and values being assessed or experimentally manipulated across multiple domains and the focus being placed on intraindividual differences. In contrast, contemporary expectancy–value models in educational psychology concentrate almost exclusively on linear effects of expectancy and value on motivational outcomes, with a focus on between-person differences. Recent advances in latent variable methodology allow both issues to be addressed in observational studies. Using the expectancy–value model of homework motivation as a theoretical framework, this study estimated multilevel structural equation models with latent interactions in a sample of 511 secondary school students and found synergistic effects between domain-specific homework expectancy and homework value in predicting homework engagement in 6 subjects. This approach not only brings the “×” back into expectancy–value theory but also reestablishes the within-person perspective as the appropriate level of analysis for latent expectancy–value models.     

A Psychodynamic Perspective on the Negotiation of Prejudice Among Immigrant Women

The negotiation of prejudice among immigrant women has largely been unaddressed in the psychotherapy literature. In an increasingly pluralistic society, such as the United States, it is especially important to address needs of specific subgroups of women who experience racial and ethnic prejudice. Immigrant women are in a unique position to simultaneously encounter prejudice related to multiple aspects of social identity, such as gender, race, and ethnicity, contributing to feelings of marginalization. This article addresses the role of attachment related conflicts in immigrant women's negotiation of racial and ethnic stereotyping and discrimination, from a psychodynamic perspective. Implications of these conflicts for women's identity development are discussed. A clinical case vignette illustrates the complexity of addressing attachment and prejudice within and outside the therapeutic relationship.     

Living With HIV/AIDS: A Psychosocial Perspective on Coping With Prejudice and Discrimination1

We examined 2 strategies used by people with HIV (N = 68) to cope with the effects of prejudice and discrimination: hiding of stigma and in‐group identification. In support of the first proposed path, we found that group‐based discrimination enhanced hiding of stigma. This reduces the perception of personal discrimination; and this, in turn, is positively related to well‐being. We also found evidence for a second, more collective path by which those who are HIV‐positive protect their well‐being. Perceived group‐based discrimination was positively associated with in‐group identification, which, in turn, was positively related to collective action intentions and well‐being. The discussion focuses on how well‐being can be protected through both individual‐ and group‐level processes.     

老年人社会支持与期望的调查研究

运用问卷调查法,通过对272名城市老年人的调查,考察了老年人的社会支持与期望的现状及其特点。结果发现:老年人的社会支持系统很不平衡,性别、年龄、受教育年限和职业对老年人的婚姻和家庭生活,人际关系和互助行为,住房情况和经济状况,以及心理需要和社会期望等具有不同的影响;相当比例的老年人在不同侧面尚需要家人和社会的关注、理解和支持。     

The Effects of Contact on Sexual Prejudice: A Meta-Analysis

A meta-analysis was conducted to examine the relationship between contact and sexual prejudice. A quantitative synthesis with 83 effect sizes from 41 articles, using mostly samples from the United States, showed a significant negative relationship between contact and sexual prejudice. Among six possible moderators tested (type of sexual prejudice scale used, correlational versus experimental studies, attitudes toward lesbians versus gay men, publication year, quality of study, and where study was conducted), three were shown to significantly moderate the relationship between contact and sexual prejudice. The relationship between contact and sexual prejudice varied as a function of the type of sexual prejudice measure used, the target group toward which the prejudicial attitudes were assessed, and where the study was conducted.     

An Investigation of the Determinants of Stigmatization and Prejudice Toward People Living With HIV/AIDS

The components and determinants of HIV/AIDS stigma and prejudice were investigated in an online‐questionnaire study. The results show that the components of the attitude toward people with HIV/AIDS consist of social distance, demands for political measures, negative stereotypes, and attribution of responsibility to people living with HIV/AIDS. Besides antigay attitudes and false beliefs about ways of infection, the HIV/AIDS attitude is connected to and depends on social dominance orientation (SDO) and right‐wing authoritarianism (RWA). Structural equation modeling indicated that antigay attitudes and false beliefs function as mediator variables for SDO and RWA. Implications of the results are discussed.     

工作场所排斥后的应对:期望和效价的作用*

基于期望-效价理论探讨了期望(关系修复可能性)和效价(关系重要性)对工作场所排斥后应对行为的影响。研究1采取回忆范式证实了遭遇工作场所排斥后个体将以积极、消极或不作为行为进行应对,而期望和效价对应对行为有显著预测作用;研究2在研究1基础上,通过情境问卷对期望和效价进行操纵,进一步验证了期望、效价与应对行为之间的因果关系,即关系修复可能性越大、关系越重要,个体越倾向以积极而非消极行为进行应对。     

Bernard Williams on the Human Prejudice

In “The Human Prejudice”, Bernard Williams discusses our treating human beings differently in our moral thinking from the ways we treat other creatures. He criticises the idea that this expresses a prejudice, speciesism, analogous to racism and sexism. His essay has been misunderstood by some of its critics, including Peter Singer and Jeff McMahan. My essay sets out several questions one may have about Williams's essay, and explains how they can be answered. I make clear the connections between “The Human Prejudice” and some main elements in Williams's thinking about ethics, including his criticisms of moral theory.     

Effects of External and Internal Motivation to Control Prejudice on Implicit Prejudice: The Mediating Role of Efforts to Control Prejudiced Responses

We examined the effects of internal and external motivation to control prejudice on implicit prejudice, focusing on identifying a mediator of the relation between external motivation and implicit prejudice. White participants completed internal and external motivation to control prejudice measures several weeks before completing the Implicit Association Test (IAT). Participants who were more internally motivated showed less implicit prejudice, whereas those who were more externally motivated displayed more implicit prejudice. Consistent with an ironic processes explanation, the effect of external motivation on increased implicit prejudice was mediated by efforts to control prejudiced responses.     

Reverse Subtyping: The Effects of Prejudice Level on the Subtyping of Counterstereotypic Outgroup Members

Although many anti-bias interventions try to overcome stereotypes by presenting positive and/or counterstereotypic members of the outgroup, people often subtype these members and refuse to see them as typical of the outgroup. Although subtyping has been shown to be a common phenomenon, it is unclear if preexisting attitudes moderate this process. The current study examined whether preexisting prejudice levels would moderate the subtyping process. Specifically, it was found that although high-prejudiced individuals subtyped a positive racial outgroup member, low-prejudiced individuals demonstrated the opposite pattern and subtyped negative outgroup members as being atypical. This suggests that although the subtyping phenomenon may be universal, its expression is moderated by preexisting intergroup attitudes.     

Effects of Personality and Information Technology on Plagiarism: An Iranian Perspective

Information technology has played a remarkably important role in developing the contemporary educational system. It not only provides easy access to enormous stores of information but also increases students' scientific efficiency. However, the availability of this technology has also led to increased plagiarism. This study attempted to explore how access to Internet technology contributes to plagiarism problems from the perspective of university students in Iran. A qualitative method to semistructured interviews with 20 students suggested important themes: uncertainty avoidance, tendency to use shortcuts to progress, symbolic certification, social learning and modeling of faculty members as mentors, and plagiarism in the name of justice. Survey data from 180 university students suggest that the personality characteristic of conscientiousness had a negative effect on using information technology to commit plagiarism.     

The Effects of Stereotyping and Implicit Theory on Benevolent Prejudice Toward Aboriginal Canadians

Stereotyping and implicit theory on benevolent prejudice toward an Aboriginal student were investigated in a mock work setting. In a 2 (Stereotype: prime vs. no prime) × 2 (Theory: entity vs. incremental) × 2 (Race: Aboriginal vs. Caucasian) between‐subjects design, non‐Aboriginal participants were primed or not primed with a negative Aboriginal stereotype and an entity or incremental implicit theory before evaluating an Aboriginal or Caucasian student. Consistent with a benevolent prejudice perspective, when primed with the stereotype, only participants holding an entity theory expressed greater desire to help the Aboriginal compared to the Caucasian candidate, despite both candidates demonstrating identical performance information. Implications for prejudice in work environments are discussed.     

Effects of Target Person Expression on Ethnic Prejudice Toward Middle Easterners and Hispanics

Research on implicit prejudice suggests that target person judgments may be affected by unintentional, but well‐learned, cognitive associations. Ethnicity, gender, and smiling or nonsmiling expression were varied as cues in White college students' perception tasks. The results of a factorial experiment are included as well as a discussion of the implications. La investigación sobre prejuicios implícitos sugiere que los juicios del individuo en cuestión pueden ser afectados por asociaciones cognitivas involuntarias, pero bien aprendidas. Se variaron la etnicidad, el género y la expresión sonriente o carente de sonrisa como entradas para las pruebas de percepción de estudiantes universitarios Blancos. Se incluyen los resultados de un experimento factorial, además de una discusión sobre las implicaciones.     

期望中断效应的注意共享解释-来自ERP的证据

以1700毫秒和2300毫秒为考察时距,采用时距复制任务,对编码阶段的中断位置进行操纵,并记录了14名大学生在进行时距复制任务时编码阶段的事件相关电位(ERP).行为结果发现:分别就1700毫秒和2300毫秒而言,中断位置越靠后,复制时距越短.脑电结果发现:无中断条件的(控制任务1)编码阶段在350～550毫秒和350～1150毫秒的CNV平均波幅分别较中断位置为550毫秒的条件和中断位置为1150毫秒条件显著更高;无中断条件的(控制任务2)编码阶段在350～750毫秒和350～1550毫秒的CNV平均波幅分别较中断位置为750毫秒的条件和中断位置为1550毫秒条件显著更高.这说明了间断编码的时间复制任务中存在期望中断效应且以注意共享机制解释期望中断效应得到了电生理学证据的直接支持.     

Expectancy of success on sex-linked tasks

College subjects undertook nine cognitive tasks with different perceived sex linkages, stating their expectancy of success prior to each task and attributing causality for their perceived performance following each task. As hypothesized, two components were present in the overall sex difference in expectancy of success, even when differences in actual task performance were statistically controlled. One component was attributable to a general tendency of females to state lower expectancies; the other was a function of the accord between the perceived sex linkage of the task and the subject's sex. The attribution data suggest that females tend to be more external for success and more internal for failure than males.The research reported here was partially supported by Grant #10692 from the Research Foundation of the City University of New York. The assistance of Bruce Eisman in testing subjects and of Rudy Lorber in data analysis is gratefully acknowledged.     

The Nudity of the Ego. An Eckhartian Perspective on the Levinas/Derrida Debate on Alterity

The present paper examines the Eckhartian motives in Derrida's critique of Levinas’ concept of the “Other”. The focus is put on the Husserlian concept of alter ego that is at the core of the debate between Levinas and Derrida. Against Levinas, Derrida argues that alter is not an epithet that expresses a mere accidental modification of the ego, but an indicator of radical exteriority. Interestingly enough, this position is virtually identical with Meister Eckhart's interpretation of the famous proposition from Exodus 3:14 “I am who I am”. Eckhart claims that the pronoun ego denotes the absolutely simple substance of the uncreated intellect, which can, by definition, never receive any accidental determination whatsoever. The reduplication of the “I am” is by no means tautological, but expresses the intra-divine dynamic of the Father who engenders the Son as his perfect equal and alter ego. This transcendental conception of egoity also governs the relationships between human beings: the ethical encounter with the “Other” requires that we consider them not primarily in their empirical, contingent existence but in the transcendental purity of their indeclinable ego, which is identical with the incessant act in which God knows himself in the Son as his absolutely Other. Thus, Meister Eckhart's approach proves, against Levinas, that it is possible to develop an “egological” philosophy that avoids the pitfalls of a naturalistic and potentially violent ontology of the subject.     

Nonverbal Mediators of Expectancy Effects in Black and White Children1

Seventy-two white undergraduates of both sexes taught a lesson “What is psychology?” to a 10-year-old male confederate. Four confederates, two white and two black, alternated in the three conditions of induced expectancy: Subjects were told the child was bright, dull, or were given no information. Unknown to subjects, their nonverbal behavior during the lesson was videotape recorded. Results indicated that induced expectancy affected subject nonverbal behavior only when the confederate was white. Subjects smiled more, looked more, and nodded more at the white “bright” confederates than the white control or “dull” confederates. However, expectancy had no effect, positive or negative, when the confederate was black. In addition, white confederates received more positive nonverbal behavior overall than did black confederates.