Development and initial validation of the comprehensive early childhood parenting questionnaire (CECPAQ) for parents of 1–4 year-olds

Parenting is a multifaceted task and the way in which parents fulfill this task plays an important role in children’s growth and development, especially in early childhood. Conceptualization and assessment of parenting behavior is elementary for research on child and family development and would fill a gap in clinical work, as there is a lack of questionnaires simultaneously assessing multiple parenting behaviors specific for early childhood. Therefore the Comprehensive Early Childhood Parenting Questionnaire (CECPAQ) was designed; a parent report measure of commonly occurring behaviors in five domains of parenting (i.e., support, stimulation, structure, harsh discipline, and positive discipline) central to early childhood. Data were collected from 1139 mothers and 526 fathers of 1–4 year-old children. Confirmatory factor analysis confirmed a five-factor structure (composed of 54 items). The five parenting domains were found to have good internal consistency and temporal stability. Preliminary evidence of validity of the CECPAQ was demonstrated by moderate relationships with measures of parental stress and child problem behavior. It is concluded that the CECPAQ is a promising measure of self-perceived parenting behavior for parents of 1–4 year-old children.     

Psychometric characteristics of the Parenting Scale in a head start population.

Examined the reliability, construct, and concurrent validity of the Parenting Scale (PS), a brief instrument designed to measure dysfunctional parenting practices for parents of young children. In Study 1, 183 primarily African American mothers and their Head Start children completed the PS. The PS, which consists of 3 subscales--Laxness, Overreactivity, and Verbosity--was subjected to confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Neither the original 3-factor structure, nor a 2-factor structure consisting of the original Laxness and Overreactivity factors, fit the data. A subsequent exploratory factor analysis yielded a 2-factor solution that was generally consistent with the Overreactivity and Laxness subscales identified by Arnold, O'Leary, Wolff, and Acker (1993). The 2-factor CFA solution was replicated with a sample of 216 similar mothers, and the 5-item Overreactivity and Laxness subscales retained internal consistencies above .70. Analysis of the convergent validity of the modified PS and its 2 subscales revealed moderate associations with measures of permissiveness, authoritarianism, involvement, and limit setting. Scores on the PS were not correlated significantly with measures of social desirability, maternal education level, or parent report of internalizing behavior problems. Concurrent validity evidence was obtained by correlating the PS with measures of parenting satisfaction and support, parenting stress, maternal depression, and measures of externalizing child behavior problems.     

Parenting stress, perceived parenting behaviors, and adolescent self-concept in European American families

This study assesses whether the stresses associated with parenting a child are indirectly related to adolescent self-concept through parenting behaviors. We examined longitudinal associations among mothers' and fathers' parenting stress at age 10, children's perceptions of parenting at age 10, and adolescents' self-concept at age 14 in 120 European American families. Mothers' and fathers' parenting stress was related to children's perceptions of acceptance and psychologically controlling behavior, and psychologically controlling behavior (and lax control for fathers) was related to adolescent self-concept. We further examined which domains of parenting stress and perceived parenting behaviors were associated with adolescents' scholastic competence, social acceptance, physical appearance, and behavioral conduct. Parenting stress was related to specific parenting behaviors, which were, in turn, related to specific domains of self-concept in adolescence. Parenting stress appears to exert its effects on early adolescent self-concept indirectly through perceived parenting behavior.     

Development and Validation of a Short Form of the Alabama Parenting Questionnaire

Brief assessments of parenting practices can provide important information about the development of disruptive behavior disorders in children. We examined the factor structure of a widely used assessment of parenting practices, the Alabama Parenting Questionnaire, and produced a 9-item short scale around its three supported factors: Positive Parenting, Inconsistent Discipline and Poor Supervision. The short scale was then validated in independent community samples using confirmatory factor analysis and measures of disruptive behavioral disorders in children. The scale showed good fit to a three-factor model and good convergent validity by differentiating parents of children with disruptive behavioral disorders and parents of children without such disorders. Results indicated that this new measure is an informative tool for researchers and clinicians whom require brief assessments of parenting practices relating to disruptive behavioral disorders in children.     

Reliability and validity of the Parenting Scale of Inconsistency

The purposes of the present study were to develop a Parenting Scale of Inconsistency and to evaluate its initial reliability and validity. The 12 items assess the inconsistency among parents' moods, behaviors, and attitudes toward children. In the primary study, 517 participants completed three measures: the new Parenting Scale of Inconsistency, the Parental Bonding Instrument, and the Depression Scale of the General Health Questionnaire. The Parenting Scale of Inconsistency had good test-retest reliability of .85 and internal consistency of .88 (Cronbach coefficient alpha). Construct validity was good as Inconsistency scores were significantly correlated with the Care and Overprotection scores of the Parental Bonding Instrument and with the Depression scores. Moreover, Inconsistency scores' relation with a dimension of parenting style distinct from Care and Overprotection suggested that the Parenting Scale of Inconsistency had factorial validity. This scale seems a potential measure for examining the relationships between inconsistent parenting and the mental health of children.     

Parenting style as a mediator between children's negative emotionality and problematic behavior in early childhood

Negative emotionality is considered to be the core of the difficult temperament concept (J. E. Bates, 1989; R. L. Shiner, 1998). In this correlational study, the authors examined whether the relations between children's negative emotionality and problematic behavior (internalizing and externalizing) were partially mediated by parenting style (authoritative and authoritarian) in a community sample of 196 3-year-old children and their mothers. The authors assessed maternal perception of child negative emotionality using the Children's Behavior Questionnaire (M. K. Rothbart, S. A. Ahadi, K. L. Hershey, & P. Fisher, 2001) and assessed problematic child behavior by means of maternal report using the Child Behavior Checklist (T. M. Achenbach, 1992). The results showed that the relations between child negative emotionality and internalizing and externalizing behaviors were partially mediated by mothers' authoritative parenting style. Moreover, when the authors used confirmatory factor analysis to decontaminate possible overlap in item content between measures assessing temperament and problematic behavior, the association between negative emotionality and internalizing behavior was fully mediated by authoritative parenting.     

Validity of the Short Form of the Parenting Stress Index for Fathers of Toddlers

We examined the psychometric properties of two scales of the parenting stress index-short form (PSI-SF) in a low-income sample of fathers of toddlers. The factor structure, reliability, and validity of the parental distress and parent–child dysfunctional interaction subscales were assessed for 696 fathers in a multi-site study of Early Head Start. Confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) compared the fit of the developer recommended two-factor scales with five-factor scales theoretically derived and supported with mothers. Our results suggested that two subscales from the PSI-SF were reliable and valid for this sample of racially diverse, low-income fathers of toddlers. However, these subscales capture multiple dimensions of parenting stress and results also supported the use of more narrowly defined aspects of parenting stress that included general distress, distress specifically related to parenting demands, problematic interactions of the father–toddler dyad, perceptions of the child, and parental perceptions of self as a parent. These unidimensional scales may prove useful in research and clinical activities by allowing researchers to elucidate the mechanisms through which stress impacts parenting and permitting clinicians information to develop more targeted interventions for young children and their families.     

Helicopter Parenting and Emerging Adult Self-Efficacy: Implications for Mental and Physical Health

Helicopter parenting has become an increasing concern among practitioners, college administrators, and professors. Further, some research has indicated that this form of parenting may have a deleterious effect on emerging adult college students’ mental health. This study examines the factor structure of the Helicopter Parenting Behaviors measure, a recent scale developed to examine intrusive and supportive parenting behaviors, by using confirmatory factor analysis. We utilized a self-determination theoretical framework to replicate and expand current research regarding the impact of helicopter parenting and autonomy supportive parenting on emerging adult mental and physical well-being. Further, we examined self-efficacy as a mechanism for helicopter parenting and autonomy supportive parenting to impact well-being, using structural equation modeling with a sample of 461 emerging adult college students from a large southeastern, United States university. The two-factor structure of the Helicopter Parenting Behaviors measure was confirmed, indicating helicopter parenting and autonomy supportive parenting are two unique, but related, constructs. Both autonomy supportive parenting and helicopter parenting were found to have indirect effects on anxiety, depression, life satisfaction, and physical health through self-efficacy. Results also indicated autonomy supportive parenting was directly related to life satisfaction and physical health when accounting for self-efficacy, whereas helicopter parenting was not directly related to well-being. This study adds to the extant literature by its’ application of a family-level lens to the self-determination theory, its’ advancement of parenting behaviors measurement, and its’ exploration of the continued influence of parenting during emerging adulthood.     

The Multidimensional Assessment of Parenting Scale (MAPS): Development and Psychometric Properties

The aim of the current study was to create a new measure of parenting practices, constituted by items from already established measures, to advance the measurement of parenting practices in clinical and research settings. Five stages were utilized to select optimal parenting items, establish a factor structure consisting of positive and negative dimensions of parenting, meaningfully consider child developmental stage, and ensure strong psychometric properties (reliability and validity) of the final measure. A total of 1790 parents (44% fathers) were recruited online through Amazon’s Mechanical Turk for three cohorts: Stages 1 (N?=?611), 2 (N?=?615), and 3 (N?=?564). Each sample was equally divided by child developmental stage: Young childhood (3 to 7 years old), middle childhood (8 to 12 years old), and adolescence (13 to 17 years old). Through the five-stage empirical approach, the Multidimensional Assessment of Parenting Scale (MAPS) was developed, successfully achieving all aims. The MAPS factor structure included both positive and negative dimensions of warmth/hostility and behavioral control that were appropriate for parents of children across the developmental span. The MAPS demonstrated strong reliability and longitudinal analyses provided initial support for the validity of MAPS subscales.     

Factor Analysis of the Italian Version of the Alabama Parenting Questionnaire in a Community Sample

Despite difficulties measuring parenting styles, many studies have demonstrated a significant relationship between disruptive children and certain parenting practices. One of the most frequently used scales to measure parenting styles is the Alabama Parenting Questionnaire (APQ). This scale was originally defined based on theoretical dimensions and using samples from the USA. Therefore, both factor analysis studies and its adaptation to other countries have been proposed to improve and widen its use. The aim of this study was to adapt the APQ to the Italian population. A community sample of 258 mothers and children (94 %) and 192 fathers (70 %) from 274 families with children from 10- to 14-years-old who agreed to participate and met the inclusion criteria completed the APQ. Principal components and exploratory factor analyses resulted in a unique 19-item version of the APQ for mothers, fathers, and children. This unified version has resulted in two factor categories: positive (12 items) and negative parenting (7 items). The internal consistency and goodness of fit of the model were satisfactory. Moderate and significant convergent validity were found for mothers and fathers but not for children. In fact, we found differences in validity rates among the participants. Children perceived less positive and more negative parenting than did fathers and mothers, and mothers believed that they provided more positive parenting than did other parents. In conclusion, the APQ Italian version of the parents and children global report forms are considered a suitable measure for positive and negative parenting styles with acceptable validity and reliability indices.     

Reward Responsivity in Parenting: Development of a Novel Measure in Mothers of Young Children

The purpose of the current study was to develop and evaluate a measure of maternal reward responsivity in parenting. Deficits in reward responsivity, a common feature of depression, may contribute to maladaptive parenting behaviors. Reward responsivity is an individual difference in reactivity to pleasurable stimuli and represents a key motivational component that could contribute to the frequency and quality of mothers’ interactions with their infants. However, there is currently no measure of reward responsivity in parenting, which would be necessary to evaluate the link between mother reward responsivity, behaviors towards their infant, and infant behavior. Therefore, the current study reports on the development and initial evaluation of a self-report measure of reward responsivity in parenting, the Mother Inventory of Reward Experience (MIRE). We evaluated the MIRE among 200 mothers (M?=?28.45, SD?=?5.50) recruited from a pediatric primary care center. After item analysis, 22 items were retained and displayed high internal consistency reliability and test re-test reliability. Convergent validity was established via a significant correlation with global reward responsivity. Concurrent validity was established via significant correlations with depressive symptoms, parenting stress, and child behavior problems. Incremental validity of the MIRE over a measure of global reward responsivity was supported. These results support the reliability and validity of the MIRE as a measure of reward responsivity in parenting.     

Measuring Parenting in Community and Public Health Research Using Brief Child and Parent Reports

The use of multi-method, multi-informant assessment is a hallmark of research in child development and mental health; however, many research strategies such as population surveys require brief assessment tools. The Alabama Parenting Questionnaire (APQ) is a popular measure of empirically identified aspects of positive and negative parenting styles important to conduct problems in children. A brief version exists, however it does not measure all relevant parenting domains, and it has not been validated for child reports. We evaluated validity of the brief parent and child report version of the complete five subscale version of the APQ in a sample of 208 children aged between 9 and 17, at risk for conduct problems and antisocial behaviour. The results showed that all five dimensions of parenting can be measured using a brief 15 item version; specifically child and parent reports converged as expected and discriminated high from low conduct problem children using parent and teacher reports. Only child reports converged with independent observations of parenting behaviour, supporting previous research showing that child reports of parenting are particularly important. Finally, results did not support the typical methods used for combining child and parent reports into one index.     

Parenting Styles in a Cultural Context: Observations of "Protective Parenting" in First-Generation Latinos

Current literature presents four primary parenting styles: authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and neglectful. These styles provide an important shortcut for a constellation of parenting behaviors that have been characterized as consisting of warmth, demandingness, and autonomy granting. Empirically, only warmth and demandingness are typically measured. Research reporting on parenting styles in Latino samples has been equivocal leading to questions about conceptualization and measurement of parenting styles in this ethnic/cultural group. This lack of consensus may result from the chasm between concepts (e.g., authoritarian parenting) and observable parenting behaviors (e.g., warmth) in this ethnic group. The present research aimed to examine parenting styles and dimensions in a sample of Latino parents using the two usual dimensions (warmth, demandingness) and adding autonomy granting. Traditional parenting styles categories were examined, as well as additional categorizations that resulted from adding autonomy granting. Fifty first-generation Latino parents and their child (aged 4–9) participated. Parent–child interactions were coded with the Parenting Style Observation Rating Scale (P-SOS). In this sample, the four traditional parenting categories did not capture Latino families well. The combination of characteristics resulted in eight possible parenting styles. Our data showed the majority (61%) of Latino parents as "protective parents." Further, while mothers and fathers were similar in their parenting styles, expectations were different for male and female children. The additional dimensions and implications are discussed. The importance of considering the cultural context in understanding parenting in Latino families is emphasized, along with directions for future research.     

Factors Associated with 3-Year Stability and Change in Parenting Behavior of Abusive Parents

We sought to examine the stability of parenting behaviors among physically abusive parents in the 3-year period between their children’s preschool and first grade years. The second purpose of the study was to identify factors that predicted the levels and rates of change in parenting behaviors. 54 parent/child dyads were recruited following substantiated physical abuse of the child and were assessed in preschool, kindergarten, and first grade. Parenting behaviors were measured by observations during Parent–Child Interactions, self-reports from parents, and child reports using a puppet interview. Potential predictors of stability and change examined were demographic factors (SES, child gender, and ethnicity) and parent characteristics (depressive symptomatology, perceptions of child behavior problems, and life stress). Multilevel modeling indicated significant fluctuations in parenting among abusive parents, and these fluctuations were generally attributable to within-person rather than between-person differences. Linear change over time was evidenced in observed positive regard, flat affect, sensitivity, and child-reported structure; changes generally were in the direction of deterioration of parenting over time. Parents’ perceptions of the severity of their children’s behavior problems predicted changes over time in parenting behaviors related to intrusiveness and structure in the home. Demographic factors and parental depression predicted change in select parenting behaviors. Overall, findings indicate instability in parenting during the developmental transition to kindergarten and wide individual differences in patterns of change in parenting. Further, parenting behavior tends to deteriorate rather than improve following substantiation of physical abuse by the child protection system.     

Latent Profile Analysis of Observed Parenting Behaviors in a Clinic Sample

We examined typologies of parenting practices using latent profile analysis (LPA) in a sample of families with young children who had externalizing behavior disorders. We also examined mother and child characteristics associated with class membership using ratings from multiple informants. The sample included pooled data from five parenting treatment outcome research studies on oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) and/or conduct disorder (CD) conducted throughout the past 20 years. These studies included 21 separate cohorts of children resulting in a total of 514 families. All children met diagnostic criteria for ODD or CD and 78 % were male. Parenting practices were observed by independent raters using the Dyadic Parent–child Interactive Coding System-Revised (DPICS-R). Four summary scores (i.e., total critical statements, total commands, total positive, total supportive) from the DPICS-R were used as class indictors in the LPA. Four classes best characterized the parenting practices of this clinic sample, roughly comprising a quarter of the sample each: Positive Only, Negative Only, Positive/Negative, and Neither Positive/Negative. High observed child negative behaviors, low observed child warmth, high socioeconomic status, and low academic performance distinguished the two classes with high negative behaviors (Negative Only, Positive/Negative) from the other classes. These results provide markers of the most common parenting profiles at entry into treatment programs for behavior disorders in young children. Findings have significant implications for the tailoring parenting interventions and supports to specific family needs.     

Development and Validation of a Quantitative Measure of Intensive Parenting Attitudes

Intensive mothering (IM) attitudes have been considered the dominant discourse of motherhood, but have only been assessed qualitatively The goal of this study was to develop a quantitative scale to assess these ideologies, their construct validity, and their relationship to relevant constructs (i.e., work status and division of household labor). An on-line questionnaire was given to 595 mothers asking 56 questions assessing different aspects of IM attitudes as well as several validation measures. An Exploratory Factor Analysis on 315 randomly selected mothers yielded a 5 factor solution. A Confirmatory Factor Analysis on the remaining 280 mothers demonstrated good fit. The five factors expressed the ideas that (1) women are inherently better at parenting than men (Essentialism), (2) parenting should be fulfilling (Fulfillment), (3) children should be cognitively stimulated by parents (Stimulation), (4) mothering is difficult (Challenging), and (5) parents should prioritize the needs of the child (Child-Centered). Scales had adequate reliability and construct validity compared to the Parental Investment in the Child questionnaire, the Parenting Sense of Competence Scale, and Beliefs about Maternal Employment. The Essentialism, Fulfillment, and Challenging scales were positively related to having more responsibility for child care and household chores. Stay-at-home mothers had higher scores on Essentialism and lower scores on Stimulation than both part-time and full-time working mothers supporting the notion that both working and non-working mothers have intensive parenting ideologies that are manifested in different ways.     

Effectiveness of Group Positive Parenting Program (Triple P) in Changing Child Behavior,Parenting Style,and Parental Adjustment: An Intervention Study in Japan

The purpose of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of a group-based family intervention program known as the Group Positive Parenting Program (Triple P), with families in Japan. Reductions in children’s behavioral problems, changes in dysfunctional parenting practices, and affects on parenting adjustment were examined. Participants of both the intervention and control groups (N = 91 and N = 24, respectively) were recruited from mothers visiting health clinics in Kawasaki City, Kanagawa. Intervention and control groups were assessed in terms of child behavior (Strength and Difficulty Questionnaire, SDQ), parenting style (Parenting Scale, PS), and parenting adjustment (Depression-Anxiety-Stress Scale, DASS; and Parenting Experience Survey, PES), both pre- and postintervention. A repeated measures multivariate analysis of variance was used to determine the intervention’s effects. The SDQ score for the conduct problems subscale indicated a significant intervention effect. In addition, the postintervention scores for all subscales of the PS, the DASS depression subscale and total scores, as well as ratings for perceived difficulty of parenting in the PES, were significantly reduced in the intervention group alone. The PES also revealed that confidence in parenting significantly increased only in the intervention group. Group Triple P is effective in decreasing child conduct problems, dysfunctional parenting practices, depression, anxiety, stress, and the perceived level of parenting difficulty, as well as in improving parenting confidence, among Japanese families.     

Psychometric characteristics of the Parenting Scale in a Vietnamese sample

The Parenting Scale (PS) is a well‐established instrument for measuring discipline practices in Western populations. However, whether the PS is a valid and reliable measure in Eastern populations is not known. Thus, this study examined the psychometric properties of the PS in a sample of 433 Vietnamese parents of children aged 2–7 years. Confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) examined the commonly used Reitman et al.'s two‐factor and Rhoades and O'Leary's three‐factor solutions. Neither factor structure fit the data. An exploratory factor analysis identified a 12‐item one‐factor and 14‐item two‐factor solutions that overlapped substantially with established factor structures. The one‐factor solution reflected Lax/Overreactive parenting and the two‐factor solution consisted of Lax/Overreactive and Hostile subscales. The factor structures were confirmed via multigroup CFA. Internal consistencies were acceptable and ranged between .70 and .85. Each factor was positively associated with parent anger, dysfunctional cognitions about child behaviour, and externalising child behaviour problems. However, when entered simultaneously in a regression, Hostile discipline was not uniquely associated with child behaviour. Overall, results support the potential utility of the 12‐item one‐factor PS as a measure of dysfunctional parenting practices for Vietnamese parents.