Sex differences in evaluating heterosexual and homosexual promiscuity

Our research focused on men's and women's interpretations of homosexually and heterosexually promiscuous behavior. Study 1 involved 21 men and 21 women who rated perceived differences between homosexually and heterosexually promiscuous behavior following a discussion of impersonal sex in public restrooms. Men perceived the two types of promiscuous behavior as more different than did women. In Study 2, 41 men and 23 women rated their perceptions of the difference between homosexually and heterosexually promiscuous behavior without any prior discussion. No sex differences were found, though a significant correlation between age and rating was observed. Men and women may focus on different dimensions when evaluating sexual behavior.     

The tripartite influence model of body image and eating disturbance: A replication with adolescent girls

The tripartite influence model of body image and eating disturbance is a recent theoretical approach that includes a test of direct (peer, parental, and media factors) and mediational links (internalization of societal appearance standards, appearance comparison processes) as factors potentially leading to body dissatisfaction and eating disturbance. The theory was evaluated in the current study in a sample of 391 adolescent females. A structural equation model that evaluated the tripartite model replicated previous findings reported by Keery, van den Berg and Thompson (2004) [Keery, H., van den Berg, & Thompson, J. K. (2004). A test of the tripartite influence model of body image and eating disturbance in adolescent girls. Body Image: An International Journal of Research, 1, 237–251.]. Additionally, a second model extended these findings, suggesting that peer and media influences are more important than parental influences. The results are discussed in light of the need for prevention programs to incorporate formative influences and mediational processes in the construction of intervention strategies.     

Love preferences and ideals: A comparison of homosexual,bisexual, and heterosexual groups

Homosexuals, bisexuals, and heterosexuals were compared on self-reported love preferences and ideals. In general, the three groups tended to agree on ideal characteristics of love objects, love relationships, and love related beliefs. Nevertheless, the groups differed significantly on preferences and beliefs related to love-object sex, residential proximity, ethnic background, physical intimacy, freedom from feelings of jealousy, sexual fidelity, emotional intimacy, and the importance of religious or legal acknowledgment.An early version of this paper was presented at the Annual Meeting of the National Council on Family Relations, in San Francisco, October 1984, Journal Series No. 2973 of the Hawaii Institute of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources.     

Perceptual differences in gender ideals among heterosexual and homosexual males and females

The relationship between sexual oreintation (heterosexuality vs. homosexuality) and perceptions of self, ideal male, and ideal female was investigated. Using the Androgyny scale of the Bex Sex Role Inventory [S. L. Bem, “The Measurement of Psychological Androgyny,” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1974, 42(2), 155–162] data were analyzed for 144 male and female subjects. The results indicated that homosexual, compared to heterosexual, subjects were least likely to stereotype their three perceptions, yet showed a significant difference between their perceived self and their same-sex ideals. Moreover, homosexual females were the only group to show a significant difference between their perceptions of the ideal male and ideal female, and to categorize all their perceptions within an androgynous range. Furthermore, they were least likely to utilize traditional sex roles in organizing their perceptions. Finally, the homosexual males, although not as extreme as heterosexual males, still maintain a slight tendency to stereotype their perception of an ideal male.     

Self-objectification,body image disturbance,and eating disorder symptoms in young Australian children

Self-objectification has been examined extensively in adult populations. Despite theoretical evidence suggesting that children may also be vulnerable to experiencing self-objectification, whether children do self-objectify has not been determined. Accordingly, the present study examined the degree to which children self-objectify. The prevalence of body image and eating disturbances in this population, and the relationship between self-objectification and these disturbances, were also investigated. Results from over 250 boys and girls aged 6–11 years revealed that young girls report levels of self-objectification that are similar to those observed among older girls and women. Self-objectification was also found to be meaningfully related to body image and eating disturbances in children. A significant proportion of children reported body dissatisfaction and a minority engaged in disordered eating behaviours in the four weeks prior to the assessment. These results suggest that children may be at risk of experiencing the negative psychological outcomes associated with self-objectification.     

Divergent perceptions of lesbians: a comparison of lesbian self-perceptions and heterosexual perceptions.

Social-psychological research on stereotyping was applied to lesbianism among American college students. The hypothesis that stereotypes of lesbians are often inaccurate predictors of individual lesbians was supported. Using stereotypes of lesbians identified by previous research, lesbians rated themselves on a series of bipolar stereotypical adjectives, and a comparison group of nonlesbians rated lesbians as a group on these same adjectives. Significant differences were found on 16 of the 21 adjectives. Knowing a lesbian personally did not influence heterosexuals' ratings, suggesting the resistance of stereotypes to change.     

Testing the Tripartite Influence Model of body image and eating disturbance among Hungarian adolescents

We tested the Tripartite Influence Model of body image and eating disturbance on two separate samples of Hungarian boys (n = 145) and girls (n = 225), aged 10–16 years. Our results supported the model among Hungarian adolescents; however we found notable gender differences. The associations were stronger in girls compared to boys; moreover, internalization and body dissatisfaction mediated the relationship between appearance-related sociocultural influences and self-esteem only in girls. BMI and weight perception were also involved in the model, and we could present evidence that the sociocultural influence and the weight perception predict independently body dissatisfaction. Our data are in line with previous results; however, further exploration of gender, age, and culture-related differences in the pattern of associations may contribute to the refinement of intervention programs.     

Exploring gender differences in body image,eating pathology,and sexual harassment

This study examines the relationship between body image (weight/shape concerns), eating pathology, and sexual harassment among men and women (N = 2446). Hierarchical regressions controlling for depression revealed main effects of gender such that women reported greater weight/shape concerns, eating pathology, dietary restraint, eating concerns, and binge eating compared to men. Main effects for sexual harassment indicated that as harassment increased, participants reported increased weight/shape concerns, eating pathology, dietary restraint, eating concerns, binge eating, and compensatory behaviors. There were small but significant interactions between gender and harassment for eating pathology total score (which included each of the domains listed above), weight/shape concerns, dietary restraint, and eating concerns such that the relationship between increased harassment and increased pathology was stronger for women compared to men. The largest interaction was found for compensatory behaviors, such that while women and men's scores both increased as harassment increased, the relationship was stronger for men.     

Gender differences in perceptions of emotionality: The case of close heterosexual relationships

Previous research suggests some support for the stereotype that women are the more emotional gender, but very little research has examined whether women are more emotional than men in the context of close relationships. We examined gender differences in reports of emotions experienced and expressed in close heterosexual relationships. A sample of 197 couples (at different stages of relationship involvement), most of whom were white and from middle-class backgrounds, responded to a list of 25 positive and negative emotions three times. Participants indicated how often they experienced the emotions, how often they expressed the emotions, and how often they believed their partner experienced the emotions (all in the past month). Women reported experiencing several emotions to a greater frequency than men, regardless of degree of relationship involvement. Further, women reported being more emotionally expressive than men in dating and more advanced (e.g., engaged) relationships, but not in marital relationships. Finally, women believed that they were generally more emotional than men, whereas men believed that women were more emotional in the experience of negative but not positive emotions. The results were generally consistent with the stereotype that females are the more emotional gender.     

Comparison of male and female junior athletes' self-perceptions and body image.

Few studies have examined sex differences in body perceptions in sports where the pressure to display a certain physique is reduced. The aim of the present study was to investigate sex differences in physical self-perceptions and body image in junior athletes who are involved in sprint kayaking, a sport where a low body weight is relatively unimportant. 12 male and 13 female members (aged 13-17 yr.) of the British Canoe Union Junior Development Squad for sprint-kayak racing completed the Physical Self-perception Profile for Children and the Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire. Multivariate analysis of variance indicated that girls reported significandy higher Sports Competence and lower Appearance Orientation scores than boys. This study has raised a number of issues surrounding the physical self-perceptions and body image of junior athletes involved in a power- and strength-based sport. It seems that male athletes may also experience pressures to conform to a male version of a 'beautiful body'.     

Dieting and body image in aesthetic sports: A comparison of Dutch female gymnasts and non-aesthetic sport participants

ObjectivesTo examine the relationship between dieting behavior and body image in female aesthetic athletes.MethodsSeventeen elite gymnasts, 51 non-elite gymnasts and a control group of 85 schoolgirls, participating in non-elite, merely recreational non-aesthetic sports, completed self-report measures of dieting behaviors and body image.ResultsAfter controlling for BMI, the results showed that elite gymnasts dieted more often than controls, although they were not more negative about their body. Furthermore, non-elite gymnasts dieted as much as controls and had a more positive body image. Despite what general theories predict, the gymnasts’ dieting was not so much related to a negative body image but rather to weight-related causal attributions or perceived weight-related coach pressure.ConclusionsWhereas controls believe that ‘thin is beautiful’, gymnasts seem more convinced or persuaded that ‘thin is going to win’. Future research should take into consideration that dieting and body image are likely to be developed differently in the context of aesthetic sports.     

Gender differences in perceptions and consequences of an eating binge

Little systematic research has examined the factors that contribute to perceptions of an eating binge. This study showed videotapes of a single male, single female, or three females eating a variable number of doughnuts at different rates to male and female undergraduate subjects. Subjects were asked to label their own eating as a binge or not, had they eaten like the person on the videotape, and how they would feel afterward. The majority of female subject labeled their own eating as a binge under all conditions, and endorsed negative emotional outcomes. Males required a large number of doughnuts, or rapid consumption before the majority labeled it a binge, and experienced mostly gastrointestinal outcomes. Many noneating disordered women in our culture may be labeling much of their eating as a binge and experience dysphoria afterward.     

Developing realistic stimuli for assessing observers' perceptions of male and female body types.

The goal of this research was to create more realistic stimuli for research in assessing observers' perceptions of male and female body types. Stimuli were developed by classifying large samples of photographs and using representative photographs to illustrate body types. Resultant stimuli go beyond current stereotypic stimuli to provide realistic representations of commonly occurring body types among men and women ages 18 ro 40 years. Realistic stimuli can be used in a wide range of research both to understand observer perceptions and to teach the reality of human variation.     

Perfectionism,social physique anxiety and disordered eating: a comparison of male and female elite athletes

Objective: To examine the relationship between Positive and Negative Perfectionism and Social Physique Anxiety (SPA) and the extent to which these two variables predict disturbed eating attitudes in male and female elite athletes.Design: Cross-sectional survey.Method: Athletes (n=316) completed measures of Positive and Negative Perfectionism, SPA, disordered eating and social desirability. Zero- and first-order (partial) correlations were examined to determine the relationship between Positive and Negative Perfectionism and SPA. Hierarchical regression analyses were used to examine how two individual difference variables, perfectionism and SPA, relate and contribute to disordered eating.Results: For both male and female athletes, Negative Perfectionism was significantly related to SPA. For males, Positive Perfectionism made a small, yet significant, contribution (i.e. 6%) in predicting disturbed eating attitudes. For females, Negative Perfectionism and SPA uniquely and in combination significantly contributed 41% of the variance in the prediction of disturbed eating attitudes.Discussion: These findings suggest that Negative Perfectionism is strongly linked with SPA and that, in females, SPA is an additional psychosocial variable to consider in the relationship between Negative Perfectionism and disordered eating.     

Elements of male body image: Prediction of depression,eating pathology and social sensitivity among gay men

The aim of the current study was to assess the relative uniqueness of three components of male body image (i.e., muscle, body fat, and height dissatisfaction) in the prediction of indices of psychological distress (i.e., depression, eating restraint, eating concerns, and social sensitivity) among a community sample of 228 gay men. Results indicated that body fat dissatisfaction was predictive of all four criterion variables (controlling for muscle dissatisfaction). Conversely, muscle dissatisfaction was only associated with social sensitivity, while height dissatisfaction failed to significantly predict any of the criterion variables. These findings highlight the relative importance of body fat dissatisfaction among gay men and suggest that researchers and clinicians working with this population should utilize measures which include assessment of both muscularity and body fat.     

Female perceptions of female and male managerial behavior

Nine branches of a large bank were investigated in a study designed to measure female subordinate reactions to male and female managers. Eighty percent of the female subordinates in the sample showed a preference for male managers. This result was not confounded by organizationally determined manager-subordinate relationships since subordinates were not assigned to a particular manager. Further analyses suggest that this preference for male managers was caused by situational variables rather than by sex differences. Although male and female managers did not differ with respect to age, education, career orientation, and organizational commitment, male managers had significantly more experience and reported having more influence than did the female managers.The author gratefully acknowledges the helpful comments of Charlie Summer, Tom Taber, and Nancy Napier, and the research assistance of Steve Green, Mike Novak, Kathie Verderber, and Bob Sinclair. An earlier version of this article was presented at the Academy of Management Meetings in New York, August 1982.     

Patterns of self-disclosure in homosexual and heterosexual college students

Two hypotheses concerning self-disclosure were investigated and confirmed in the present study, comparing homosexual and heterosexual college students. The first hypothesis was that self-disclosure, as measured by the Jourard Self-Disclosure Questionnaire, would be positively correlated with psychological femininity. The second hypothesis was that homosexual males and heterosexual females would exhibit similar patterns of high disclosure and femininity. No significant differences were found in total disclosure between homosexuals and heterosexuals, although homosexuals disclosed less to father, and more to friends than to parents. The conclusion was that psychological femininity and masculinity are more important than biological sex in determining self-disclosure.